Urban forest

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This allee of trees, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, is an example so-called "kissing canopies", when the canopies of street trees reach all the way over a road and thus provide dappled shade along the entire route Dulmen, Bornste, Waldweg -- 2015 -- 9911.jpg
This allée of trees, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, is an example so-called "kissing canopies", when the canopies of street trees reach all the way over a road and thus provide dappled shade along the entire route

An urban forest is a forest, or a collection of trees, that grow within a city, town or a suburb. In a wider sense, it may include any kind of woody plant vegetation growing in and around human settlements. As opposed to a forest park, whose ecosystems are also inherited from wilderness leftovers, urban forests often lack amenities like public bathrooms, paved paths, or sometimes clear borders which are distinct features of parks. Care and management of urban forests is called urban forestry. Urban forests can be privately and publicly owned. Some municipal forests may be located outside of the town or city to which they belong.

Contents

Urban forests play an important role in ecology of human habitats in many ways. Aside from the beautification of the urban environment, they offer many benefits like impacting climate and the economy while providing shelter to wildlife and recreational area for city dwellers. [1]

Examples

Tijuca Forest in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil P5131148aaa.JPG
Tijuca Forest in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

In many countries there is a growing understanding of the importance of the natural ecology in urban forests. There are numerous projects underway aimed at restoration and preservation of ecosystems, ranging from simple elimination of leaf-raking and elimination of invasive plants to full-blown reintroduction of original species and riparian ecosystems. [2] [3]

Some sources claim that the largest man-made urban forest in the world is located in Johannesburg in South Africa. [4] [5] The city is located in the highveld, a grassland biome typically lacking large numbers of trees, yet Johannesburg is still a very densely wooded city with reportedly 10 million [6] artificially introduced trees and is rated as the city with the eighth highest tree coverage in the world. [7]

Cherry Blossoms lining the Tidal Basin in Washington, D.C. Tidal Basin blossoms by Matthew Bisanz.JPG
Cherry Blossoms lining the Tidal Basin in Washington, D.C.

Rio de Janeiro is also home to two of the vastest urban forests in the world, one of which is considered by some sources to be the largest one. [8] [9] [10] Tijuca Forest is the most famous. It began as a restoration policy in 1844 to conserve the natural remnants of forest and replant in areas previously cleared for sugar and coffee. [11] Despite the worldwide recognition of Tijuca Forest, another forest in the same city encompasses roughly three times the size of its more prominent neighbor: Pedra Branca State Park occupies 12,500 hectares (30,888 acres) of city land, against Tijuca's 3,953 hectares (9,768 acres). [12] [8] The larger metropolitan area encircles the forests which moderate the humid climate and provide sources of recreation for urban dwellers. Along with seven other smaller full protection conservation units in the city, they form an extensive natural area that contains the Transcarioca Trail, a 180-km footpath. [13]

Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India is also an example of an urban forest. It covers roughly around 20% area of the city. The forest is filled with many animals freely roaming around. It also has an important cultural site of ancient history situated in it known as the Kanheri caves. Nebraska National Forest is the largest man-made forest in the United States located in the state of Nebraska. It lies in several counties within the state and is a popular destination for campers year-round. [14]

Several cities within the United States have also taken initiative investing in their urban forests to improve the well-being and economies of their communities. [15] Some notable cities among them are Austin, Atlanta, New York, Seattle, and Washington, D.C. New York, for example, has taken initiative to combat climate change by planting millions of trees around the city. [16] In Austin, private companies are funding tree-planting campaigns for environmental and energy-saving purposes. [17]

Environmental impact

Urban forests play an important role in benefitting the environmental conditions of their respective cities. They moderate local climate, slowing wind and stormwater, and filter air and sunlight. They are critical in cooling the urban heat island effect, thus potentially reducing the number of unhealthful ozone days that plague major cities in peak summer months.[ citation needed ]

Air pollution reduction

As cities struggle to comply with air quality standards, trees can help to clean the air. The most serious pollutants in the urban atmosphere are ozone, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfuric oxides (SOx) and particulate pollution. Ground-level ozone, or smog, is created by chemical reactions between NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. High temperatures increase the rate of this reaction. Vehicle emissions (especially diesel), and emissions from industrial facilities are the major sources of NOx. Vehicle emissions, industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, chemical solvents, trees and other plants are the major sources of VOCs. Particulate pollution, or particulate matter (PM10 and PM25), is made up of microscopic solids or liquid droplets that can be inhaled and retained in lung tissue causing serious health problems. Most particulate pollution begins as smoke or diesel soot and can cause serious health risk to people with heart and lung diseases and irritation to healthy citizens. Trees are an important, cost-effective solution to reducing pollution and improving air quality.[ citation needed ]

Trees reduce temperatures and smog

With an extensive and healthy urban forest air quality can be drastically improved. Trees help to lower air temperatures and the urban heat island effect in urban areas. This reduction of temperature not only lowers energy use, it also improves air quality, as the formation of ozone is dependent on temperature. Trees reduce temperature not only by directly shading: when there is a large number of trees it create a difference in temperatures between the area when they are located and the neighbor area. This creates a difference in atmospheric pressure between the two areas, which creates wind. This phenomenon is called urban breeze cycle if the forest is near the city and park breeze cycle if the forest is in the city. That wind helps to lower temperature in the city. [18]

Lower temperatures reduce emissions in parking lots [19]

Temperature reduction from shade trees in parking lots lowers the amount of evaporative emissions from parked cars. Unshaded parking lots can be viewed as miniature heat islands, where temperatures can be even higher than surrounding areas. Tree canopies will reduce air temperatures significantly. Although the bulk of hydrocarbon emissions come from tailpipe exhaust, 16% of hydrocarbon emissions are from evaporative emissions that occur when the fuel delivery systems of parked vehicles are heated. These evaporative emissions and the exhaust emissions of the first few minutes of engine operation are sensitive to local microclimate. If cars are shaded in parking lots, evaporative emissions from fuel and volatilized plastics will be greatly reduced.

The volatile components of asphalt pavement evaporate more slowly in shaded parking lots and streets. The shade not only reduces emissions, but reduces shrinking and cracking so that maintenance intervals can be lengthened. Less maintenance means less hot asphalt (fumes) and less heavy equipment (exhaust). The same principle applies to asphalt-based roofing.

Active pollutant removal

Trees also reduce pollution by actively removing it from the atmosphere. Leaf stomata, the pores on the leaf surface, take in polluting gases which are then absorbed by water inside the leaf. Some species of trees are more susceptible to the uptake of pollution, which can negatively affect plant growth. Ideally, trees should be selected that take in higher quantities of polluting gases and are resistant to the negative effects they can cause.

A study across the Chicago region determined that trees removed approximately 17 tonnes of carbon monoxide (CO), 93 tonnes of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 98 tonnes of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and 210 tonnes of ozone (O3) in 1991.

Carbon sequestration

Urban forest managers are sometimes interested in the amount of carbon removed from the air and stored in their forest as wood in relation to the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere while running tree maintenance equipment powered by fossil fuels.

Interception of particulate matter

In addition to the uptake of harmful gases, trees act as filters intercepting airborne particles and reducing the amount of harmful particulate matter. The particles are captured by the surface area of the tree and its foliage. These particles temporarily rest on the surface of the tree, as they can be washed off by rainwater, blown off by high winds, or fall to the ground with a dropped leaf. Although trees are only a temporary host to particulate matter, if they did not exist, the temporarily housed particulate matter would remain airborne and harmful to humans. Increased tree cover will increase the amount of particulate matter intercepted from the air.

Rainwater runoff reduction

Virginia opossum being sheltered by an old tree Possum122708b.jpg
Virginia opossum being sheltered by an old tree

Urban forests and trees help purify water sources by slowing down rain as it falls to the earth and help it soak into the soil, thereby naturally filtering out pollutants that can potentially enter water supply sources. They reduce storm water runoff and mitigate flood damage, protecting the surrounding rivers and lakes. [20] Trees also help alleviate the load on "grey" infrastructure (such as sewers and drains) via evapotranspiration. Trees are ideally suited as their canopies can intercept water (and provide dense vegetation), whilst their roots can pump substantial amounts of water back into the atmosphere as water vapor, all with a relatively small footprint. [21]

Urban wildlife

Trees in urban forests provide food and shelter for wildlife in cities. Birds and small mammals use trees as nesting sites, and reptiles use the shade they provide to keep cool in the hot summer months. [22] Furthermore, trees provide shade necessary for shrubbery. Not only do urban forests protect land animals and plants, they also sustain fish and water animals that need shade and lower temperatures to survive. [20] Wealthier neighborhoods often have more tree cover (both community-subsidized and on private property) which results in an accumulation of benefits on those sections of a city; a study of neighborhoods in Los Angeles found higher levels of bird diversity in historically richer sections of town, and larger populations of synanthropic birds in historically poorer sections of town. [23] [24]

Economic impacts

The economic benefits of trees and various other plants have been understood for a long time. Recently, more of these benefits are becoming quantified. Quantification of the economic benefits of trees helps justify public and private expenditures to maintain them. One of the most obvious examples of economic utility is the example of the deciduous tree planted on the south and west of a building (in the Northern Hemisphere), or north and east (in the Southern Hemisphere). The shade shelters and cools the building during the summer, but allows the sun to warm it in the winter after the leaves fall. The physical effects of trees—the shade (solar regulation), humidity control, wind control, erosion control, evaporative cooling, sound and visual screening, traffic control, pollution absorption and precipitation—all have economic benefits.[ citation needed ]

Energy and CO2 consumption

Urban forests contribute to the reduction of energy usage and CO2 emissions primarily through the indirect effects of an efficient forestry implementation. [25] [26] The shade provided by trees reduces the need for heating and cooling throughout the year. [27] As a result, energy conservation is achieved which leads to a reduction of CO2 emissions by power plants. [26] Computer models indicate that annual energy consumption can be reduced by 30 billion kWh using 100 million trees in U.S. urban areas. This energy consumption decrease equates to monetary savings of $2 billion. Additionally, the reduction of energy demand would reduce power plant CO2 emissions by 9 million tons per year. [25]

Water filtration

The stormwater retention provided by urban forests can provide monetary savings even in arid regions where water is expensive or watering conservation is enforced. [25] One example of this can be seen in a study carried out over 40 years in Tucson, AZ, which analyzed the savings of stormwater management costs. Over this period, it was calculated that $600,000 in stormwater treatment costs were saved. [25] It was also observed that the net water consumption was reduced when comparing the water required for irrigation against power plant water consumption due to the effects of urban forests on energy usage. [25]

In another instance, New York City leaders in the late 1990s chose to pursue a natural landscape management instead of an expensive water treatment system to clean the Catskill/Delaware watershed. New Yorkers today enjoy some of the healthiest drinking water in the world. [20]

Tourism and local business expansion

The USDA Guide [28] notes on page 17 that "Businesses flourish, people linger and shop longer, apartments and office space rent quicker, tenants stay longer, property values increase, new business and industry is attracted" by trees.

Increases in property values

Urban forests have been linked to an increase in property value surrounding residents. An empirical study from Finland showed a 4.9% increase in property valuation when located just one kilometer closer to a forest. [29] Another source claims this increase can range as high as 20%. [30] The reduction of air, light, and noise pollution provided by forests is cause for the notable pricing differentials.[ citation needed ]

Sociological impacts

The Backbone Trail in the Santa Monica Mountains, California Biking Backbone Trail (5182585280).jpg
The Backbone Trail in the Santa Monica Mountains, California

Community health impact

Urban forests offer many benefits to their surrounding communities. Removing pollutants and greenhouse gases from the air is one key reason why cities are adopting the practice. Removing pollutants from the air, urban forests can lower risks of asthma and lung cancer. [31] [32] Communities that rely on well-water may also see a positive change in water purity due to filtration. [33] [34] The amenities provided by the city of each urban forest varies. Some amenities include trails and pathways for walking or running, picnic tables, and bathrooms. These healthy spaces provide for the community a place to gather and live a more active lifestyle.

Mental health impact

Living near urban forests have shown positive impacts on mental health. As an experimental mental health intervention in the city of Philadelphia, trash was removed from vacant lots, some of them being selectively "greened" by plantings trees, grass, and installing small fences. Residents near the "greened" lots who had incomes below the poverty line reported a 68% decrease in feelings of depression, while residents with incomes above the poverty line reported a decrease of 41%. [35] The Biophilia hypothesis argues that people are instinctively drawn to nature, while Attention Restoration Theory goes on to demonstrate tangible improvements in medical, academic and other outcomes, from access to nature. Proper planning and community involvement are important for the positive results to be realized. [36] [37]

Increased home values and incomes

In addition to providing economic benefits at the community level, trees also benefit individual homeowners. A tree on a home's landscape or around the house can increase the dollar value received for the home upon sale. According to one study, a tree planted in the front yard can increase a home's sale price by $7,130 and raise the sale prices of surrounding homes. Healthy urban forests also correlate with higher incomes. In communities that have thriving urban forests, there are higher incomes, higher numbers of jobs associated with those communities, and higher productivity of workers. [38]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smog</span> Smoke-like, fog-like air pollutions

Smog, or smoke fog, is a type of intense air pollution. The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century, and is a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog due to its opacity, and odor. The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid-20th century, where it was commonly known as a London particular or London fog. This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide, ozone, smoke and other particulates. Man-made smog is derived from coal combustion emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban heat island</span> Urban area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas

Urban areas usually experience the urban heat island (UHI) effect, that is, they are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. The temperature difference is usually larger at night than during the day, and is most apparent when winds are weak, under block conditions, noticeably during the summer and winter. The main cause of the UHI effect is from the modification of land surfaces while waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor. A study has shown that heat islands can be affected by proximity to different types of land cover, so that proximity to barren land causes urban land to become hotter and proximity to vegetation makes it cooler. As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The term heat island is also used; the term can be used to refer to any area that is relatively hotter than the surrounding, but generally refers to human-disturbed areas. Urban areas occupy about 0.5% of the Earth's land surface but host more than half of the world's population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ground-level ozone</span> Constituent gas of the troposphere

Ground-level ozone (O3), also known as surface-level ozone and tropospheric ozone, is a trace gas in the troposphere (the lowest level of the Earth's atmosphere), with an average concentration of 20–30 parts per billion by volume (ppbv), with close to 100 ppbv in polluted areas. Ozone is also an important constituent of the stratosphere, where the ozone layer (2 to 8 parts per million ozone) exists which is located between 10 and 50 kilometers above the Earth's surface. The troposphere extends from the ground up to a variable height of approximately 14 kilometers above sea level. Ozone is least concentrated in the ground layer (or planetary boundary layer) of the troposphere. Ground-level or tropospheric ozone is created by chemical reactions between NOx gases (oxides of nitrogen produced by combustion) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The combination of these chemicals in the presence of sunlight form ozone. Its concentration increases as height above sea level increases, with a maximum concentration at the tropopause. About 90% of total ozone in the atmosphere is in the stratosphere, and 10% is in the troposphere. Although tropospheric ozone is less concentrated than stratospheric ozone, it is of concern because of its health effects. Ozone in the troposphere is considered a greenhouse gas, and may contribute to global warming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indoor air quality</span> Air quality within and around buildings and structures

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. Poor indoor air quality due to indoor air pollution is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. It has also been linked to sick building syndrome, reduced productivity, and impaired learning in schools. Common pollutants of indoor air include: secondhand tobacco smoke, air pollutants from indoor combustion, radon, molds and other allergens, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, legionella and other bacteria, asbestos fibers, carbon dioxide, ozone and particulates. Source control, filtration, and the use of ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parking lot</span> Cleared area for parking vehicles

A parking lot or car park, also known as a car lot, is a cleared area intended for parking vehicles. The term usually refers to an area dedicated only for parking, with a durable or semi-durable surface. In most jurisdictions where cars are the dominant mode of transportation, parking lots are a major feature of cities and suburban areas. Shopping malls, sports stadiums, and other similar venues often have immense parking lots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban forestry</span> Land use management system in which trees or shrubs are cared or protected for well-being

Urban forestry is the care and management of single trees and tree populations in urban settings for the purpose of improving the urban environment. Urban forestry involves both planning and management, including the programming of care and maintenance operations of the urban forest. Urban forestry advocates the role of trees as a critical part of the urban infrastructure. Urban foresters plant and maintain trees, support appropriate tree and forest preservation, conduct research and promote the many benefits trees provide. Urban forestry is practiced by municipal and commercial arborists, municipal and utility foresters, environmental policymakers, city planners, consultants, educators, researchers and community activists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exhaust gas</span> Gases emitted as a result of fuel reactions in combustion engines

Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, fuel oil, biodiesel blends, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack, or propelling nozzle. It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Living street</span> Traffic calming in spaces shared between road users

A living street is a street designed with the interests of pedestrians and cyclists in mind by providing enriching and experiential spaces. Living streets also act as social spaces, allowing children to play and encouraging social interactions on a human scale, safely and legally. Living streets consider all pedestrians granting equal access to elders and those who are disabled. These roads are still available for use by motor vehicles; however, their design aims to reduce both the speed and dominance of motorized transport. The reduction of motor vehicle dominance creates more opportunities for public transportation.

In atmospheric chemistry, NOx is shorthand for nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for air pollution. These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain, as well as affecting tropospheric ozone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable drainage system</span>

Sustainable drainage systems are a collection of water management practices that aim to align modern drainage systems with natural water processes and are part of a larger green infrastructure strategy. SuDS efforts make urban drainage systems more compatible with components of the natural water cycle such as storm surge overflows, soil percolation, and bio-filtration. These efforts hope to mitigate the effect human development has had or may have on the natural water cycle, particularly surface runoff and water pollution trends.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green infrastructure</span> Sustainable and resilient infrastructure

Green infrastructure or blue-green infrastructure refers to a network that provides the “ingredients” for solving urban and climatic challenges by building with nature. The main components of this approach include stormwater management, climate adaptation, the reduction of heat stress, increasing biodiversity, food production, better air quality, sustainable energy production, clean water, and healthy soils, as well as more anthropocentric functions, such as increased quality of life through recreation and the provision of shade and shelter in and around towns and cities. Green infrastructure also serves to provide an ecological framework for social, economic, and environmental health of the surroundings. More recently scholars and activists have also called for green infrastructure that promotes social inclusion and equity rather than reinforcing pre-existing structures of unequal access to nature-based services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air pollution</span> Presence of dangerous substances in the atmosphere

Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. It is also the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alters the natural features of the atmosphere. There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases, particulates, and biological molecules. Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage the natural environment or built environment. Air pollution can be caused by both human activities and natural phenomena.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban green space</span> Green area planned in an urban location

In land-use planning, urban green space is open-space areas reserved for parks and other "green spaces", including plant life, water features - also referred to as blue spaces - and other kinds of natural environment. Most urban open spaces are green spaces, but occasionally include other kinds of open areas. The landscape of urban open spaces can range from playing fields to highly maintained environments to relatively natural landscapes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air pollution in Mexico City</span> Poor quality of air in the capital and largest city of Mexico

Air Pollution in Mexico City has been of concern to the city's population and health officials for decades. In the 20th century, Mexico City's population rapidly increased as industrialization brought thousands of migrants from all over the world. Such a rapid and unexpected growth led to the UN declaring Mexico City as the most polluted city in the world in 1992. This was partly due to Mexico City's high altitude, which causes its oxygen levels to be 25% lower. Carbon-based fuels also do not combust completely. Other factors include the proliferation of vehicles, rapid industrial growth, and the population boom. The Mexican government has several active plans to reduce emission levels which require citizen participation, vehicular restrictions, increase of green areas, and expanded bicycle accessibility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Particulates</span> Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earths atmosphere

Particulates or atmospheric particulate matter are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone. Sources of particulate matter can be natural or anthropogenic. They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health, in ways additional to direct inhalation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air pollution in India</span> Air pollution in India

Air pollution in India is a serious environmental issue. Of the 30 most polluted cities in the world, 21 were in India in 2019. As per a study based on 2016 data, at least 140 million people in India breathe air that is 10 times or more over the WHO safe limit and 13 of the world's 20 cities with the highest annual levels of air pollution are in India. 51% of the pollution is caused by industrial pollution, 27% by vehicles, 17% by crop burning and 5% by other sources. Air pollution contributes to the premature deaths of 2 million Indians every year. Emissions come from vehicles and industry, whereas in rural areas, much of the pollution stems from biomass burning for cooking and keeping warm. In autumn and spring months, large scale crop residue burning in agriculture fields – a cheaper alternative to mechanical tilling – is a major source of smoke, smog and particulate pollution. India has a low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country as a whole is the third largest greenhouse gas producer after China and the United States. A 2013 study on non-smokers has found that Indians have 30% weaker lung function than Europeans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban reforestation</span> Planting of trees in urban environments

Urban reforestation is the practice of planting trees, typically on a large scale, in urban environments. It may also include urban horticulture and urban farming.

i-Tree is a collection of urban and rural forestry analysis and benefits assessment tools. It was designed and developed by the United States Forest Service to quantify and value ecosystem services provided by trees including pollution removal, carbon sequestration, avoided carbon emissions, avoided stormwater runoff, and more. i-Tree provides baseline data so that the growth of trees can be followed over time, and is used for planning purposes. Different tools within the i-Tree Suite use different types of inputs and provide different kinds of reports; some tools use a 'bottom up' approach based on tree inventories on the ground, while other tools use a 'top down' approach based on remote sensing data. i-Tree is peer-reviewed and has a process of ongoing collaboration to improve it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Mongolia</span>

There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and environmental wellness. These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors, but increasingly because of human actions. One of these issues is climate change, which will be responsible for an increase in desertification, natural disasters, and land degradation. Another is deforestation, which is expanding due to human recklessness, pests, disease, and fires. Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification, a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use. Additionally, more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction. Moreover, especially in population centers, Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by industrialization.

Transpirational cooling is the cooling provided as plants transpire water. Excess heat generated from solar radiation is damaging to plant cells and thermal injury occurs during drought or when there is rapid transpiration which produces wilting. Green vegetation contributes to moderating climate by being cooler than adjacent bare earth or constructed areas. As plant leaves transpire they use energy to evaporate water aggregating up to a huge volume globally every day.

References

Notes

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  3. ↑ Elmqvist, T; Setälä, H; Handel, SN; van der Ploeg, S; Aronson, J; Blignaut, JN; Gómez-Baggethun, E; Nowak, DJ; Kronenberg, J; de Groot, R (1 June 2015). "Benefits of restoring ecosystem services in urban areas". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. Open Issue. 14: 101–108. Bibcode:2015COES...14..101E. doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2015.05.001 . hdl: 2263/51975 . ISSN   1877-3435.
  4. ↑ "Johannesburg is the biggest urban forest in the world and it also has many parks and other public open spaces (GL)". www.southafrica.net. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
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  7. ↑ Garfield, Leanna (26 March 2018). "These are the 19 cities with the most trees". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  8. 1 2 "Conservation units". Trilha Transcarioca official website (in English and Portuguese). Archived from the original on 12 April 2020.
  9. ↑ Matos, D. M. Silva; Santos, C. Junius F.; Chevalier, D. de R. (1 September 2002). "Fire and restoration of the largest urban forest of the world in Rio de Janeiro City, Brazil". Urban Ecosystems. 6 (3): 151–161. doi:10.1023/A:1026164427792. ISSN   1083-8155. S2CID   37065854.
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  11. ↑ Drummond, José (1996). "The Garden in the Machine: An Environmental History of Brazil's Tijuca Forest". Environmental History. 1 (1): 83–104. doi:10.2307/3985065. ISSN   1084-5453. JSTOR   3985065. S2CID   147161459.
  12. ↑ Ribeiro, Fernando (2016). "Participative mapping of cultural ecosystem services in Pedra Branca State Park, Brazil". Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation. 14 (2): 120–127. doi: 10.1016/j.ncon.2016.09.004 . ISSN   2530-0644.
  13. ↑ "About the Transcarioca Trail". Trilha Transcarioca official website (in English and Portuguese). Archived from the original on 12 April 2020.
  14. ↑ Lefevers, Delana (28 July 2019). "The Largest Man-Made Forest In The U.S. Is In Nebraska And It's A Unique Place To Visit". OnlyInYourState. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
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  16. ↑ Sutton, Michelle (16 April 2018). "NYC's 25-Year Plan for its Urban Forests". New York State Urban Forestry Council. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
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  18. ↑ "Climate Change Management". American Planning Association. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
  19. ↑ Klaus I. Scott, James R. Simpson, and E. Gregory McPherson. "Effects of Tree Cover on Parking Lot Microclimate and Vehicle Emissions" Archived 2013-09-03 at the Wayback Machine USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station Western Center for Urban Forest Research and Education
  20. 1 2 3 Rosenow, John. "Trees play key role in purifying our water". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
  21. ↑ Berland, Adam; Shiflett, Sheri A.; Shuster, William D.; Garmestani, Ahjond S.; Goddard, Haynes C.; Herrmann, Dustin L.; Hopton, Matthew E. (June 2017). "The role of trees in urban stormwater management". Landscape and Urban Planning. 162: 167–177. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.02.017. PMC   6134866 . PMID   30220756.
  22. ↑ "Losing Urban Trees—and the Wildlife that Depends on Them". Good Nature Travel. 11 December 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  23. ↑ Wood, Eric M; Esaian, Sevan; Benitez, Christian; Ethington, Philip J; Longcore, Travis; Pomara, Lars Y (11 October 2023). "Historical racial redlining and contemporary patterns of income inequality negatively affect birds, their habitat, and people in Los Angeles, California". Ornithological Applications. doi: 10.1093/ornithapp/duad044 . ISSN   0010-5422.
  24. ↑ Pineda, Dorany (11 October 2023). "How L.A.'s bird population is shaped by historic redlining and racist loan practices". Los Angeles Times. Photographs by Genaro Molina. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 Dwyer, John; Mcpherson, E.; Schroeder, Herbert; Rowntree, Rowan (1 January 1992). "Assessing the benefits and costs of the urban forest". J. Arbor. 18.
  26. 1 2 Tyrväinen, Liisa; Pauleit, Stephan; Seeland, Klaus; de Vries, Sjerp (2005), Konijnendijk, Cecil; Nilsson, Kjell; Randrup, Thomas; Schipperijn, Jasper (eds.), "Benefits and Uses of Urban Forests and Trees", Urban Forests and Trees: A Reference Book, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 81–114, doi:10.1007/3-540-27684-x_5, ISBN   9783540276845
  27. ↑ McPherson, Greg; Simpson, James R.; Peper, Paula J.; Maco, Scott E.; Xiao, Qingfu (1 December 2005). "Municipal Forest Benefits and Costs in Five US Cities". Journal of Forestry. 103 (8): 411–416. doi:10.1093/jof/103.8.411 (inactive 31 January 2024). ISSN   0022-1201.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
  28. ↑ Craig W. Johnson; Fred A. Baker; Wayne S. Johnson (1990). "Urban & Community Forestry, a Guide for the Interior Western United States" (PDF). USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ogden, Utah.
  29. ↑ Tyrväinen, Liisa; Miettinen, Antti (1 March 2000). "Property Prices and Urban Forest Amenities". Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 39 (2): 205–223. doi:10.1006/jeem.1999.1097. ISSN   0095-0696.
  30. ↑ "Local Economics :: Green Cities: Good Health". depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  31. ↑ Konijnendijk, Cecil; Nilsson, Kjell; Randrup, Thomas; Schipperijn, Jasper, eds. (2005). Urban Forests and Trees. doi:10.1007/3-540-27684-x. ISBN   978-3-540-25126-2.
  32. ↑ Brack, C. L. (1 March 2002). "Pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration by an urban forest". Environmental Pollution. 116: S195–S200. doi:10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00251-2. ISSN   0269-7491. PMID   11833907.
  33. ↑ Rosenow, John. "Trees play key role in purifying our water". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  34. ↑ "The Important Relationship between Forests and Water". American Forests. 26 April 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  35. ↑ South, Eugenia C.; Hohl, Bernadette C.; Kondo, Michelle C.; MacDonald, John M.; Branas, Charles C. (6 July 2018). "Effect of Greening Vacant Land on Mental Health of Community-Dwelling Adults: A Cluster Randomized Trial". JAMA Network Open. 1 (3): e180298. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0298. PMC   6324526 . PMID   30646029.
  36. ↑ Address by Professor Lord Winston on benefits of trees in urban areas in (2011) Professor Lord Winston captures carbon in Marylebone , retrieved 18 September 2022
  37. ↑ Pataki, Diane E.; Alberti, Marina; Cadenasso, Mary L.; Felson, Alexander J.; McDonnell, Mark J.; Pincetl, Stephanie; Pouyat, Richard V.; Setälä, Heikki; Whitlow, Thomas H. (2021). "The Benefits and Limits of Urban Tree Planting for Environmental and Human Health". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2021.603757 . hdl: 11343/268214 . ISSN   2296-701X.
  38. ↑ Almenar, J. B., Petucco, C., Tomás Navarrete Gutiérrez, Chion, L., & Rugani, B. (2023). Assessing net environmental and economic impacts of urban forests: An online decision support tool. Land, 12(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12010070

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