Organic movement

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Organic tomatoes Organic Produce.jpg
Organic tomatoes

The organic movement broadly refers to the organizations and individuals involved worldwide in the promotion of organic food and other organic products. It started during the first half of the 20th century, when modern large-scale agricultural practices began to appear.[ citation needed ]

Contents

Definition

An organic product can broadly be described as not containing toxic chemicals (including synthetic pesticides, arsenic-containing herbicides, fertilization biosolids, chemical food additives, antibiotics, synthetic hormones, and industrial solvents). In addition to the absence of artificial chemicals, "organic" means not genetically engineered, and having not used ionizing irradiation, [1] which can cause free-radicals and the removal of vitamins.[ citation needed ] For example, USDA organic restricts against such things, including genetic engineering in products or in the products' animal feed, [2] [3] [4] and automatically disallows the use of GMO products as being labelled as Organic and allows the use of "Non-GMO" labelling similar to The Non-GMO Project. [5]

In the United Kingdom, the term used with food is natural food. [6]

History

Origins

The organic movement began in the early 20th century as a response to synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides emerging in industrial agriculture. Early advocates included Albert Howard, Robert McCarrison, Viscount Lymington, Edgar J. Saxon, and Frank Newman Turner, who emphasized soil health and ecological farming. In 1940, Lord Northbourne coined the term organic farming in his book Look to the Land, describing the “farm as organism” concept that contrasted “chemical farming versus organic farming.”

Parallel reform currents developed internationally. Rudolf Steiner’s 1924 lectures at Koberwitz (now Kobierzyce, Poland) gave rise to biodynamic agriculture, which became one of the earliest systematic approaches to organic farming. In Britain, Lady Eve Balfour’s Haughley Experiment (1939) provided the first side-by-side comparison of organic and conventional farming. Her 1943 book The Living Soil helped found the Soil Association (1946). In India, Sir Albert Howard’s An Agricultural Testament (1940) and The Soil and Health (1947) were widely influential, adopting and popularizing the “organic” terminology.

In the United States, J. I. Rodale popularized organic methods from the 1940s through his magazine Organic Farming and Gardening (1942) and publishing house Rodale Press. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) further galvanized public concern about agrichemicals, linking the organic movement to the broader environmental movement.

Natural and Organic Foods Movement (1940s–1970s)

By the 1940s, “health food” stores had begun to appear in North America, often influenced by vegetarian, naturopathic, and Seventh-day Adventist traditions. Publications such as Organic Farming and Gardening, Natural Food and Farming (1954), and later East West Journal (1971) provided forums for advocacy.

In 1966, Aveline and Michio Kushi founded Erewhon, a Boston macrobiotic store that became the first major U.S. distributor of imported natural and organic foods. It helped introduce products such as brown rice, miso, and sea vegetables to American consumers. Other distributors soon followed, including Eden Foods (Michigan), Janus (Seattle), Westbrae (California), and Lifestream (Vancouver, Canada). These networks supported the expansion of natural foods co-ops and independent retailers during the 1970s.

The late 1960s and 1970s also saw the rise of countercultural “back-to-the-land” movements and co-operative groceries. Publications such as Diet for a Small Planet (1971) by Frances Moore Lappé popularized plant-based and organic eating among a broader readership. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) was founded in Versailles in 1972, linking disparate national organizations including Demeter International (Germany), the Soil Association (UK), and Rodale (U.S.).

Commercial Expansion (1980s–2000s)

By the 1980s, natural foods distributors had become a significant industry. Meetings of wholesalers and co-ops created standards and distribution networks that fueled rapid growth. United Natural Foods Inc. (UNFI), founded in 1976 as Mountain People’s Warehouse, became the largest natural foods distributor in North America.

Retail chains emerged as dominant players. Whole Foods Market, founded in Austin, Texas in 1980, grew through acquisitions of regional co-ops and stores such as Bread & Circus, Mrs. Gooch’s, and Wild Oats Markets. By the 1990s it had become the largest dedicated organic supermarket chain in the United States. Similar chains expanded internationally, including Fresh & Wild in the UK and Bio Company in Germany.

During this period, government regulation developed. The Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 led to the National Organic Program (certification standards implemented in 2002). The European Union likewise integrated organic production into its agricultural policy and subsidy framework.

Global Market and Certification (2000s–present)

From the 2000s onward, the organic movement has grown into a global market encompassing not only food but also textiles, bodycare, and household goods. Certification programs expanded worldwide, with IFOAM and national agencies standardizing production and labeling.

By the early 21st century, the organic sector was no longer limited to co-ops and health food stores but had penetrated mainstream supermarkets. Whole Foods Market and Trader Joe's, along with conventional grocers carrying private-label organics, made certified organic products widely available.

Environmental awareness, concerns over pesticides, and interest in local food systems continue to drive growth. Activists and scholars within the organic movement now focus not only on certification but also on broader sustainability issues, including food miles, Fair trade, and Regenerative agriculture.

Timeline

Organic food

This section is an excerpt from Organic food.[ edit ]
Organic produce at a farmers' market in Argentina Pepperseggplants.jpg
Organic produce at a farmers' market in Argentina

Organic food, also known as ecological or biological food, refers to foods and beverages produced using methods that comply with the standards of organic farming. Standards vary worldwide, but organic farming features practices that cycle resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity. Organizations regulating organic products may restrict the use of certain pesticides and fertilizers in the farming methods used to produce such products. Organic foods are typically not processed using irradiation, industrial solvents, or synthetic food additives. [7]

In the 21st century, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification to market their food as organic. Although the produce of kitchen gardens may actually be organic, selling food with an organic label is regulated by governmental food safety authorities, such as the National Organic Program of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [8] or the European Commission (EC). [9]

From an environmental perspective, fertilizing, overproduction, and the use of pesticides in conventional farming may negatively affect ecosystems, soil health, [10] [11] biodiversity, groundwater, and drinking water supplies. These environmental and health issues are intended to be minimized or avoided in organic farming. [12]

Demand for organic foods is primarily driven by consumer concerns for personal health and the environment, such as the detrimental environmental impacts of pesticides. [13] From the perspective of scientists and consumers, there is insufficient evidence in the scientific and medical literature to support claims that organic food is either substantially safer or healthier to eat than conventional food. [13]

Organic agriculture has higher production costs and lower yields, higher labor costs, and higher consumer prices as compared to conventional farming methods.

Organic companies

The recent interest in the organic industry has sparked the interest of many businesses from small local distributors to large companies that distribute many products nationally. The organic market is now a 13 billion dollar a year industry, that continues to grow especially from large corporations such as Wal-Mart that are now offering organic choices to their customers. [14] Other companies that offer organic options include General Mills and Kraft. Some large companies have bought smaller already established organic companies such as Earth's Best, Rice Dream soy milk, Garden of Eatin', Celestial Seasonings and Health Valley. When larger companies buy smaller companies it is called stealth ownership. [15]

Organic cosmetics

Organic cosmetics are products that are made with organic ingredients that were produced without the use of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers.

The FDA does not have a definition of “Organic” in terms of organic cosmetics. FDA regulates cosmetics under the authority of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) and the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA). [16]

The USDA (the U.S. Department of Agriculture) requirements for the use of the term “organic” are separate from the laws and regulations that FDA applies for cosmetics. For more information on "organic" labeling for cosmetics, see the NOP publication, "Cosmetics, Body Care Products, and Personal Care Products." Cosmetic products labeled with “organic” must follow both USDA regulations and FDA regulations of organic claims for labeling and safety requirements for cosmetics.

The Agricultural Marketing Service of USDA supervises the National Organic Program (NOP). The NOP regulations have the definition of "organic" and provide certification for agricultural ingredients if they have been produced under conditions that would meet the definition. Moreover, the regulations also include labeling standards based on the percentage of organic ingredients in every product. [17]

The COSMetic Organic and Natural Standard (COSMOS) sets certification requirements for organic and natural cosmetics products in Europe. [18]

Organic farming

This section is an excerpt from Organic farming.[ edit ]

Organic farming, also known as organic agriculture or ecological farming or biological farming, [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] is an agricultural system that emphasizes the use of naturally occurring, non-synthetic inputs, such as compost manure, green manure, and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting, and mixed cropping. Biological pest control methods such as the fostering of insect predators are also encouraged. [24] Organic agriculture can be defined as "an integrated farming system that strives for sustainability, the enhancement of soil fertility and biological diversity while, with rare exceptions, prohibiting synthetic pesticides, antibiotics, synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, and growth hormones". [25] [26] [27] [28] It originated early in the 20th century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. Certified organic agriculture accounted for 70 million hectares (170 million acres) globally in 2019, with over half of that total in Australia. [29]

Organic standards are designed to allow the use of naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or severely limiting synthetic substances. [30] For instance, naturally occurring pesticides, such as garlic extract, bicarbonate of soda, or pyrethrin (which is found naturally in the Chrysanthemum flower), are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, such as glyphosate, are prohibited. Synthetic substances that are allowed only in exceptional circumstances may include copper sulfate, elemental sulfur, and veterinary drugs. Genetically modified organisms, nanomaterials, human sewage sludge, plant growth regulators, hormones, and antibiotic use in livestock husbandry are prohibited. [31] [32] Broadly, organic agriculture is based on the principles of health, care for all living beings and the environment, ecology, and fairness. [33] Organic methods champion sustainability, [34] [35] self-sufficiency, autonomy and independence, [35] health, animal welfare, food security, and food safety. [36] It is often seen as part of the solution to the impacts of climate change. [37]

Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by transnational organizations such as the European Union and also by individual nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), [38] an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations established in 1972, with regional branches such as IFOAM Organics Europe [39] and IFOAM Asia. [40] Since 1990, the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $150 billion worldwide in 2022 – of which more than $64 billion was earned in North America and EUR 53 billion in Europe. [41] This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland, which grew by 26.6 percent from 2021 to 2022. [42] As of 2022, organic farming is practiced in 188 countries and approximately 96,000,000 hectares (240,000,000 acres) worldwide were farmed organically by 4.5 million farmers, representing approximately 2 percent of total world farmland. [43]

Organic farming can be beneficial on biodiversity and environmental protection at local level; however, because organic farming can produce lower yields compared to intensive farming, leading to increased pressure to convert more non-agricultural land to agricultural use in order to produce similar yields, it can cause loss of biodiversity and negative climate effects. [44] [45] [46]

Organic land care and landscaping

Organic land care, organic landscaping, or organic lawn management is a form of horticulture that relies on organic land management techniques such as mowing high, proper watering, the use of compost, soil amendments, and organic pest control.

In the late 20th century, a movement to manage lawns organically began to grow out of the practices of the organic farming movement. Activists in several U.S. cities have pushed local governments to require organic landscaping. Many private properties worldwide are managed organically, but some locations require organic land care. [47] Local regulations are often responding to a lack of regulation from the federal government and billion-dollar settlements against pesticide manufacturers. [48]

The organic land care movement gained public recognition in 1996 when England's Prince Charles announced that the Highgrove House gardens and landscaping were under organic management. [49] In 2009, then Harvard University President Drew Gilpin Faust announced that the campus and grounds were under organic management there implemented by landscape director Wayne Carbone and with savings of two million gallons of irrigation water and resulting in cure of leaf spot and apple scab in the campus orchard. [50] In 2018, Portland, Maine became the largest city in the United States to restrict all synthetic pesticide applications across all public lands and private property. The pesticide ordinance passed by the City Council that includes a fine of up to $500 for violations was lobbied for by environmental groups and community organizer Avery Yale Kamila. [51] In 2019, Rafael Tornini, head of the Garden and Environment Service of the Vatican, announced the 37 acre Gardens of Vatican City had been transitioning to organic management since 2017. [52]

Criticisms

There have been multiple criticisms regarding organic food and organic marketing practices. Scientists at the University of Washington did a test of the urine of children who are on organic food diets and children who are on conventional food diets. The result was that the urine of children on organic food diets had a median level of pesticide byproducts only one-sixth of children on conventional food diets. However, at the same time French, British and Swedish government food agencies have all concluded that there was no scientific proof that organic food is safer or has more nutrition than conventional foods. [53]

A 2014 study by a non-profit academic think tank funded by the Council for Biotechnology Information alleged consumers are "routinely deceived" by intentional and endemic misleading health claims in organic marketing. [54] Organic products typically cost 10% to 40% more than similar conventionally produced products. [55] According to the UK's Food Standards Agency, "Consumers may choose to buy organic fruit, vegetables and meat because they believe them to be more nutritious than other food. However, the balance of current scientific evidence does not support this view." [56] A 12-month systematic review commissioned by the FSA in 2009 and conducted at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine based on 50 years' worth of collected evidence concluded that "there is no good evidence that consumption of organic food is beneficial to health in relation to nutrient content." [57] Although the source of the organic movement was small family farms, large corporations have started distributing more organic products and certain categories of organic foods, such as milk, have been reported by Michael Pollan to be highly concentrated and predominantly sourced to mega-farms. [58]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Allen, Gary J.; Albala, Ken, eds. (2007). The Business of Food: Encyclopedia of the Food and Drink Industries. ABC-CLIO. p. 288. ISBN   978-0-313-33725-3.
  2. ↑ "Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR)". Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR). 5 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  3. ↑ "Can GMOs Be Used in Organic Products? | Agricultural Marketing Service". www.ams.usda.gov. 1 May 2013. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  4. ↑ McEvoy, Miles (21 February 2017). "Organic 101: Can GMOs Be Used in Organic Products?". www.usda.gov. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  5. ↑ McEvoy, Miles (21 February 2017). "New Allowances for Including a "Non-GMO" Statement on Certified Organic Meat and Poultry Products". www.usda.gov. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  6. ↑ "Criteria for use of the terms Fresh, Pure, Natural etc. in food labeling" (PDF). Food Standards Agency. 1 December 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  7. ↑
  8. ↑ "National Organic Program". Agricultural Marketing Service, US Department of Agriculture. 12 December 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  9. ↑ "Organic certification". European Commission: Agriculture and Rural Development. 2014. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
  10. ↑ Reeve, J. R.; Hoagland, L. A.; Villalba, J. J.; Carr, P. M.; Atucha, A.; Cambardella, C.; Davis, D. R.; Delate, K. (1 January 2016). "Chapter Six – Organic Farming, Soil Health, and Food Quality: Considering Possible Links". Advances in Agronomy. 137. Academic Press: 319–367. doi:10.1016/bs.agron.2015.12.003.
  11. ↑ Tully, Katherine L.; McAskill, Cullen (1 September 2020). "Promoting soil health in organically managed systems: a review". Organic Agriculture. 10 (3): 339–358. Bibcode:2020OrgAg..10..339T. doi:10.1007/s13165-019-00275-1. ISSN   1879-4246. S2CID   209429041.
  12. ↑ Lowell, Vicki. "Organic FAQs". Organic Farming Research Foundation. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  13. 1 2 "Should you go organic?". Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School. 9 September 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2022.
  14. ↑ Clark, Georgia. "The New Horizon for Organics: A Market Outlook of the Effects of Wal-Mart on the International Organic Market". June 2007
  15. ↑ Kleppel, Gary; Ikerd, John (22 July 2014). The Emergent Agriculture: Farming, Sustainability and the Return of the Local Economy. New Society Publishers. ISBN   9780865717732.
  16. ↑ ""Organic" Cosmetics". U.S. Food & Drug Administration. 25 February 2022. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
  17. ↑ Gpo.gov
  18. ↑ Alex, Cosper. "Understanding COSMOS – the COSMetics organic and natural standard". Desjardin. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
  19. ↑ Labelling, article 30 of Regulation (EU) 2018/848 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2024 on organic production and labelling of organic products and repealing Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007.
  20. ↑ "History of Organic Farming". biocyclopedia.com. Retrieved 21 March 2023. Various types and methods of organic agriculture have been developed in the Northern Hemisphere, such as the biological-organic and biodynamic method
  21. ↑ "Biological Farming/Ecological Farming". USDA National Agricultural Library. Retrieved 21 March 2023. the term biological often refers to organic farming, whereas the term ecological refers to organic plus environmental considerations such as on-farm wildlife management
  22. ↑ "Organic farming". Lexicon Wein‑Plus. Retrieved 21 March 2023. A form of production (also organic farming, ecological farming, ecological-biological farming, ecological agriculture, alternative agriculture) for the production of food and other agricultural products
  23. ↑ "Clean & Organic Agricultural Products" (PDF). RIRDC. October 2000. Retrieved 21 March 2023. Biological farming and 'bio' products are terms often used in European countries as equivalent to organic farming. [...] Ecological farming and 'eco' products are terms also used in European countries as equivalent to organic farming.
  24. ↑ Gamage, Ashoka; Gangahagedara, Ruchira; Gamage, Jeewan; Jayasinghe, Nepali; Kodikara, Nathasha; Suraweera, Piumali; Merah, Othmane (2023). "Role of organic farming for achieving sustainability in agriculture". Farming System. 1 (1): 100005. Bibcode:2023FaSys...100005G. doi: 10.1016/j.farsys.2023.100005 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  25. ↑ Danielle Treadwell, Jim Riddle, Mary Barbercheck, Deborah Cavanaugh-Grant, Ed Zaborski, Cooperative Extension System, What is organic farming? Archived 3 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  26. ↑ Martin, H. "Introduction to Organic Farming". Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. ISSN   1198-712X.
  27. ↑ Rhoads, Dale. "What is organic farming?" (PDF). Purdue Extension Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2016.
  28. ↑ Gold, Mary. "What is organic production?". National Agricultural Library. USDA. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
  29. ↑ Paull, John (2019). "Organic Agriculture in Australia: Attaining the Global Majority (51%)". Journal of Environment Protection and Sustainable Development– via Academia.edu.
  30. ↑ McEvoy, Miles (27 October 2020). "Organic 101: Allowed and Prohibited Substances". USDA . Retrieved 30 September 2023.
  31. ↑ Paull, John (2011) "Nanomaterials in food and agriculture: The big issue of small matter for organic food and farming", Proceedings of the Third Scientific Conference of ISOFAR (International Society of Organic Agriculture Research), 28 September – 1 October, Namyangju, Korea., 2:96-99
  32. ↑ "USDA List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances in Organic Agriculture". USDA List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances in Organic Agriculture. USDA. 4 April 2016. Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
  33. ↑ "The Four Principles of Organic Agriculture | IFOAM". www.ifoam.bio. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
  34. ↑ Arsenault, Chris. "Only 60 Years of Farming Left If Soil Degradation Continues". Scientific American . Retrieved 29 May 2016.
  35. 1 2 Coleman, Eliot (1995), The New Organic Grower: A Master's Manual of Tools and Techniques for the Home and Market Gardener (2nd ed.), Chelsea Green Publishing Company, pp. 65, 108, ISBN   978-0930031756.
  36. ↑ Sharma, Manoj; Pudasaini, Abhishek (1 September 2021). "What motivates producers and consumers towards organic vegetables? A case of Nepal" . Organic Agriculture. 11 (3): 477–488. doi:10.1007/s13165-021-00354-2. ISSN   1879-4246.
  37. ↑ "Environment and Natural Resouces Series No. 4". www.fao.org. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
  38. ↑ Paull, John "From France to the World: The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)", Journal of Social Research & Policy, 2010, 1(2):93-102.
  39. ↑ "IFOAM Organics Europe - About us". IFOAM Organics Europe. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
  40. ↑ "About Us – IFOAM Asia" . Retrieved 4 October 2024.
  41. ↑ "FiBL - Downloads & Shop". www.fibl.org. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
  42. ↑ Organic World 2024
  43. ↑ "The World of Organic Agriculture - Statistics & Emerging Trends 2024" (PDF). Research Institute of Organic Agriculture and IFOAM - Organics International. p. 12. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
  44. ↑ "Scientists urge EU to allow the use of novel breeding techniques and modern biotechnology in organic farming". Wageningen Plant Research. 23 April 2021. Archived from the original on 2 February 2023.
  45. ↑ Meemken, Eva-Marie; Qaim, Matin (2018). "Organic Agriculture, Food Security, and the Environment". Annual Review of Resource Economics. 10 (1): 39–63. doi: 10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-023252 . ISSN   1941-1340.
  46. ↑ Smith, Laurence G.; Kirk, Guy J.D.; Jones, Philip J.; Williams, Adrian G. (2019). "The greenhouse gas impacts of converting food production in England and Wales to organic methods". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 4641. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-12622-7. PMC   6805889 .
  47. ↑ Land, Leslie (12 April 2007). "Are Bugs the Pests, or Humans? Organic Lawns Take Hold". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  48. ↑ "Pesticide industry influence at the local level". EHN. 16 November 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  49. ↑ Aslet, Clive (12 November 2018). "Inside the private world of Prince Charles: What's life really like for our future king?". The Telegraph. ISSN   0307-1235 . Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  50. ↑ Raver, Anne (23 September 2009). "The Grass Is Greener at Harvard". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  51. ↑ Billings, Randy (4 January 2018). "Portland's tough new ban on synthetic pesticides allows few exceptions". Portland Press Herald. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  52. ↑ Caldwell, Zelda (2 August 2019). "The Vatican Gardens are going "green"". Aleteia – Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  53. ↑ Jan, Grover; Singer, Peter; Mason, Jim (2008). FOOD. Detroit: Greenhaven Press. pp.  170–171. ISBN   978-0737737943.
  54. ↑ Organics Exposed (Academics Review Organic Marketing Report 2014), by Steve Kopperud, Brownfield News, 2 May 2014.
  55. ↑ Winter, CK and SF Davis, 2006 "Organic Foods" Journal of Food Science 71(9):R117–R124.
  56. ↑ The Food Standards Agency’s Current Stance Archived 31 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  57. ↑ Sophie Goodchild (29 July 2009). "Organic food 'no healthier' blow". London Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 1 August 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
  58. ↑ Naturally, by Michael Pollan, The New York Times Magazine, 13 May 2001.

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