Greenhouse gas emissions

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Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries. Areas of rectangles represent total emissions for each country. 20210626 Variwide chart of greenhouse gas emissions per capita by country.svg
Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries. Areas of rectangles represent total emissions for each country.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (CO2), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate change. The largest annual emissions are from China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. [2] Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC (2575 GtCO2), of which 484±20 GtC (1773±73 GtCO2) from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC (802±220 GtCO2) from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%. [3] [4]

Contents

Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas resulting from human activities. It accounts for more than half of warming. Methane (CH4) emissions have almost the same short-term impact. [5] Nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (F-gases) play a lesser role in comparison. Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in 2023 were all higher than ever before. [6]

Electricity generation, heat and transport are major emitters; overall energy is responsible for around 73% of emissions. [7] Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane. The largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions is agriculture, closely followed by gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers. Similarly, fluorinated gases from refrigerants play an outsized role in total human emissions.

The current CO2-equivalent emission rates averaging 6.6 tonnes per person per year, [8] are well over twice the estimated rate 2.3 tons [9] [10] required to stay within the 2030 Paris Agreement increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels. [11] Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries. [12]

The carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) serves as an indicator to compare the amount of greenhouse gases emitted over the entire life cycle from the production of a good or service along the supply chain to its final consumption. [13] [14] Carbon accounting (or greenhouse gas accounting) is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas an organization emits. [15]

Relevance for greenhouse effect and global warming

The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere insulate the planet from losing heat to space, raising its surface temperature. Surface heating can happen from an internal heat source as in the case of Jupiter, or from its host star as in the case of the Earth. In the case of Earth, the Sun emits shortwave radiation (sunlight) that passes through greenhouse gases to heat the Earth's surface. In response, the Earth's surface emits longwave radiation that is mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. The absorption of longwave radiation prevents it from reaching space, reducing the rate at which the Earth can cool off.

Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average surface temperature would be as cold as −18 °C (−0.4 °F). [16] [17] This is of course much less than the 20th century average of about 14 °C (57 °F). [18] [19] In addition to naturally present greenhouse gases, burning of fossil fuels has increased amounts of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. [20] [21] As a result, global warming of about 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) has occurred since the Industrial Revolution, [22] with the global average surface temperature increasing at a rate of 0.18 °C (0.32 °F) per decade since 1981. [23]

Overview of main sources

Global greenhouse gas emissions by type of greenhouse gas. The majority (74%) is CO2, followed by methane (17%), in 2016. Global GHG Emissions by gas.png
Global greenhouse gas emissions by type of greenhouse gas. The majority (74%) is CO2, followed by methane (17%), in 2016.

Relevant greenhouse gases

The major anthropogenic (human origin) sources of greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N
2
O
), methane and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride (SF
6
), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)). [25] Though the greenhouse effect is heavily driven by water vapor, [26] human emissions of water vapor are not a significant contributor to warming.

Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming, though the two processes are sometimes confused in the media. In 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol. [27] [28] [29] The use of CFC-12 (except some essential uses) has been phased out due to its ozone depleting properties. [30] The phasing-out of less active HCFC-compounds will be completed in 2030. [31]

Human activities

The industrial era growth in atmospheric CO2-equivalent gas concentrations since 1750 Global climate forcing of the industrial era.png
The industrial era growth in atmospheric CO2-equivalent gas concentrations since 1750

Starting about 1750, industrial activity powered by fossil fuels began to significantly increase the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Emissions have grown rapidly since about 1950 with ongoing expansions in global population and economic activity following World War II. As of 2021, measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide were almost 50% higher than pre-industrial levels. [32] [33]

The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity (also called carbon sources) are:

Global estimates

Global greenhouse gas emissions are about 50 Gt per year [24] and for 2019 have been estimated at 57 Gt CO2 eq including 5 Gt due to land use change. [43] In 2019, approximately 34% [20 GtCO2-eq] of total net anthropogenic GHG emissions came from the energy supply sector, 24% [14 GtCO2-eq] from industry, 22% [13 GtCO2-eq]from agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU), 15% [8.7 GtCO2-eq] from transport and 6% [3.3 GtCO2-eq] from buildings. [44]

Global carbon dioxide emissions by country in 2023:

  China (31.8%)
  United States (14.4%)
  European Union (4.9%)
  India (9.5%)
  Russia (5.8%)
  Japan (3.5%)
  Other (30.1%)

The current CO2-equivalent emission rates averaging 6.6 tonnes per person per year, [8] are well over twice the estimated rate 2.3 tons [9] [10] required to stay within the 2030 Paris Agreement increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over pre-industrial levels. [11]

While cities are sometimes considered to be disproportionate contributors to emissions, per-capita emissions tend to be lower for cities than the averages in their countries. [45]

A 2017 survey of corporations responsible for global emissions found that 100 companies were responsible for 71% of global direct and indirect emissions, and that state-owned companies were responsible for 59% of their emissions. [46] [47]

China is, by a significant margin, Asia's and the world's largest emitter: it emits nearly 10 billion tonnes each year, more than one-quarter of global emissions. [48] Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest per capita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the US are gradually decreasing over time. [49] Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries. [50]

2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions. [51]

High income countries compared to low income countries

CO2 emissions per capita versus GDP per capita (2018): In general, countries with a higher GDP per capita also have higher greenhouse gas emissions per capita. CO2 emissions vs GDP.svg
CO2 emissions per capita versus GDP per capita (2018): In general, countries with a higher GDP per capita also have higher greenhouse gas emissions per capita.

Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries. [12] :144 Due to China's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the US). [49]

Africa and South America are both fairly small emitters, accounting for 3-4% of global emissions each. Both have emissions almost equal to international aviation and shipping. [48]

Calculations and reporting

Per capita CO2 emissions surged after the mid-20th century, but then slowed their rate of growth. 1800- Global carbon dioxide emissions, per person.svg
Per capitaCO2 emissions surged after the mid-20th century, but then slowed their rate of growth.

Variables

There are several ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions. Some variables that have been reported include: [54]

These measures are sometimes used by countries to assert various policy/ethical positions on climate change. [56] :94The use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools. [54]

Reporting

Emissions may be tracked over long time periods, known as historical or cumulative emissions measurements. Cumulative emissions provide some indicators of what is responsible for greenhouse gas atmospheric concentration build-up. [57] :199

National accounts balance

The national accounts balance tracks emissions based on the difference between a country's exports and imports. For many richer nations, the balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This result is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. A positive account balance would mean that more production was occurring within a country, so more operational factories would increase carbon emission levels. [58]

Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against the base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from the year 1995). [12] :146,149 A country's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year.

Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country's total annual emissions by its mid-year population. [59] :370 Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions. [56] :106–107

Embedded emissions

One way of attributing greenhouse gas emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption. [60] For example, in the main international treaty on climate change (the UNFCCC), countries report on emissions produced within their borders, e.g., the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels. [61] :179 [62] :1 Under a production-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.

A substantial proportion of CO2 emissions is traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe. [62] :4

Carbon footprint

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be for example tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal.

Emission intensity

Emission intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity" and "emissions intensity" are also sometimes used. [63] Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates (MER) or purchasing power parity (PPP). [56] :96 Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries, whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences.

Example tools and websites

Carbon accounting (or greenhouse gas accounting) is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas an organization emits. [15]

Climate TRACE

Climate TRACE (Tracking Real-Time Atmospheric Carbon Emissions) [64] is an independent group which monitors and publishes greenhouse gas emissions. [65] It launched in 2021 before COP26, [66] and improves monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) of both carbon dioxide and methane. [67] [68] The group monitors sources such as coal mines and power station smokestacks worldwide, [69] with satellite data (but not their own satellites) and artificial intelligence. [70] [71]

Cumulative and historical emissions

Cumulative and annual CO2 emissions
1850- Cumulative emissions of carbon dioxide, by country.svg
Cumulatively, the U.S. has emitted the greatest amount of CO2, though China's emission trend is now steeper. [53]
1850- Annual emissions of carbon dioxide, by country.svg
Annually, the U.S. emitted the most CO2 until early in the 21st century, when China's annual emissions began to dominate. [53]
Cumulative CO2 emission by world region.png
Cumulative CO2 emission by world region
Cumulative per person emissions by world region in 3 time periods.png
Cumulative per person emissions by world region in 3 time periods
CO2 emissions by source since 1880 CO2 Emissions by Source Since 1880.svg
CO2 emissions by source since 1880

Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming, [72] and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change. In particular, CO2 stays in the atmosphere for at least 150 years and up to 1000 years, [73] whilst methane disappears within a decade or so, [74] and nitrous oxides last about 100 years. [75] The graph gives some indication of which regions have contributed most to human-induced climate change. [76] [77] :15 When these numbers are calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then-current population the situation is shown even more clearly. The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1.

Non-OECD countries accounted for 42% of cumulative energy-related CO2 emissions between 1890 and 2007. [61] :179–80 Over this time period, the US accounted for 28% of emissions; the EU, 23%; Japan, 4%; other OECD countries 5%; Russia, 11%; China, 9%; India, 3%; and the rest of the world, 18%. [61] :179–80The European Commission adopted a set of legislative proposals targeting a reduction of the CO2 emissions by 55% by 2030.

Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8% of industrial CO2 emissions over this time period, and 67.8% of total CO2 emissions. Developing countries accounted for industrial CO2 emissions of 16.2% over this time period, and 32.2% of total CO2 emissions.

However, what becomes clear when we look at emissions across the world today is that the countries with the highest emissions over history are not always the biggest emitters today. For example, in 2017, the UK accounted for just 1% of global emissions. [48]

In comparison, humans have emitted more greenhouse gases than the Chicxulub meteorite impact event which caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. [78]

Transport, together with electricity generation, is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. Greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector continue to rise, in contrast to power generation and nearly all other sectors. Since 1990, transportation emissions have increased by 30%. The transportation sector accounts for around 70% of these emissions. The majority of these emissions are caused by passenger vehicles and vans. Road travel is the first major source of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, followed by aircraft and maritime. [79] [80] Waterborne transportation is still the least carbon-intensive mode of transportation on average, and it is an essential link in sustainable multimodal freight supply chains. [81]

Buildings, like industry, are directly responsible for around one-fifth of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from space heating and hot water consumption. When combined with power consumption within buildings, this figure climbs to more than one-third. [82] [83] [84]

Within the EU, the agricultural sector presently accounts for roughly 10% of total greenhouse gas emissions, with methane from livestock accounting for slightly more than half of 10%. [85]

Estimates of total CO2 emissions do include biotic carbon emissions, mainly from deforestation. [56] :94 Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land-use change. [56] :93–94 The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system.

Fossil fuel CO2 emissions on log (natural and base 10) scales Co2 growth log piecewise.png
Fossil fuel CO2 emissions on log (natural and base 10) scales

The graphic shows the logarithm of 1850–2019 fossil fuel CO2 emissions; [86] natural log on left, actual value of Gigatons per year on right. Although emissions increased during the 170-year period by about 3% per year overall, intervals of distinctly different growth rates (broken at 1913, 1945, and 1973) can be detected. The regression lines suggest that emissions can rapidly shift from one growth regime to another and then persist for long periods of time. The most recent drop in emissions growth – by almost 3 percentage points – was at about the time of the 1970s energy crisis. Percent changes per year were estimated by piecewise linear regression on the log data and are shown on the plot; the data are from The Integrated Carbon Observation system. [87]

Changes since a particular base year

The sharp acceleration in CO2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported. [88] In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and N
2
O
by 0.25% y−1.

Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming. [77] :17–18 [89] This can be calculated by dividing a country's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country's minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year. Choosing between base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries. [77] :17–18 Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of CO2 emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions).

Data from Global Carbon Project

Map of key fossil fuel projects ("carbon bombs"): proposed or existing fossil fuel extraction projects (a coal mine, oil or gas project) that would result in more than 1 gigaton of CO2 emissions if its reserves were completely extracted and burnt. Potential CO2 emissions from large fossil fuel projects 'carbon bombs' per country.jpg
Map of key fossil fuel projects ("carbon bombs"): proposed or existing fossil fuel extraction projects (a coal mine, oil or gas project) that would result in more than 1 gigaton of CO2 emissions if its reserves were completely extracted and burnt.

The Global Carbon Project continuously releases data about CO2 emissions, budget and concentration.

CO2 emissions [91]
YearFossil fuels

and industry (excluding cement carbonation) Gt C

Land use

change Gt C

Total

Gt C

Total

Gt CO2

20109.1061.3210.4338.0
20119.4121.3510.7639.2
20129.5541.3210.8739.6
20139.6401.2610.939.7
20149.7101.3411.0540.2
20159.7041.4711.1740.7
20169.6951.2410.9339.8
20179.8521.1811.0340.2
201810.0511.1411.1940.7
201910.1201.2411.3641.3
20209.6241.1110.7339.1
202110.1321.0811.2140.8
2022

(projection)

10.21.0811.2841.3

Emissions by type of greenhouse gas

Distribution of global greenhouse gas emissions based on type of greenhouse gas, without land-use change, using 100 year global warming potential (data from 2020).
Total: 49.8 GtCO2e [92] :5

  CO2 mostly by fossil fuel (72%)
  CH4 methane (19%)
  N
2
O
nitrous oxide (6%)
  Fluorinated gases (3%)
Distribution of global greenhouse gas emissions based on type of greenhouse gas (data from 2014) Global emissions gas 2015.png
Distribution of global greenhouse gas emissions based on type of greenhouse gas (data from 2014)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas, while methane (CH4) emissions almost have the same short-term impact. [5] Nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (F-gases) play a lesser role in comparison.

Greenhouse gas emissions are measured in CO2 equivalents determined by their global warming potential (GWP), which depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. Estimations largely depend on the ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) including methane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), tropospheric ozone and black carbon persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years; whereas carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia. [93] Reducing SLCP emissions can cut the ongoing rate of global warming by almost half and reduce the projected Arctic warming by two-thirds. [94]

Greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were estimated at 57.4 GtCO2e, while CO2 emissions alone made up 42.5 Gt including land-use change (LUC). [95]

While mitigation measures for decarbonization are essential on the longer term, they could result in weak near-term warming because sources of carbon emissions often also co-emit air pollution. Hence, pairing measures that target carbon dioxide with measures targeting non-CO2 pollutants – short-lived climate pollutants, which have faster effects on the climate, is essential for climate goals. [96]

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

  • Fossil fuel (use for energy generation, transport, heating and machinery in industrial plants): oil, gas and coal (89%) are the major driver of anthropogenic global warming with annual emissions of 35.6 GtCO2 in 2019. [97] :20
  • Cement production (burning of fossil fuels) (4%) is estimated at 1.42 GtCO2
  • Land-use change (LUC) is the imbalance of deforestation and reforestation. Estimations are very uncertain at 4.5 GtCO2. Wildfires alone cause annual emissions of about 7 GtCO2 [98] [99]
  • Non-energy use of fuels, carbon losses in coke ovens, and flaring in crude oil production. [97]
  • Production of Hydrogen (using and transforming of Methane and Coal): Not yet estimated, emerging.

Methane (CH4)

Historical and future temperature projections showing importance of mitigating short-lived climate pollutants like methane Historical and future temperature projections showing importance of mitigating short-lived climate pollutants.jpg
Historical and future temperature projections showing importance of mitigating short-lived climate pollutants like methane

Methane has a high immediate impact with a 5-year global warming potential of up to 100. [5] Given this, the current 389 Mt of methane emissions [97] :6 has about the same short-term global warming effect as CO2 emissions, with a risk to trigger irreversible changes in climate and ecosystems. For methane, a reduction of about 30% below current emission levels would lead to a stabilization in its atmospheric concentration.

  • Fossil fuels (32%) (emissions due to losses during production and transport) account for most of the methane emissions including coal mining (12% of methane total), gas distribution and leakages (11%) as well as gas venting in oil production (9%). [97] :6 [97] :12
  • Livestock (28%) with cattle (21%) as the dominant source, followed by buffalo (3%), sheep (2%), and goats (1.5%). [97] :6,23
  • Human waste and wastewater (21%): When biomass waste in landfills and organic substances in domestic and industrial wastewater is decomposed by bacteria in anaerobic conditions, substantial amounts of methane are generated. [97] :12
  • Rice cultivation (10%) on flooded rice fields is another agricultural source, where anaerobic decomposition of organic material produces methane. [97] :12

Nitrous oxide (N
2
O
)

N2O has a high GWP and significant Ozone Depleting Potential. It is estimated that the global warming potential of N2O over 100 years is 265 times greater than CO2. [100] For N2O, a reduction of more than 50% would be required for a stabilization.

Most emissions (56%) of nitrous oxide comes from agriculture, especially meat production: cattle (droppings on pasture), fertilizers, animal manure. [97] :12Further contributions come from combustion of fossil fuels (18%) and biofuels [101] as well as industrial production of adipic acid and nitric acid.

F-gases

Fluorinated gases include hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). They are used by switchgear in the power sector, semiconductor manufacture, aluminum production and a largely unknown source of SF6. [97] :38 Continued phase down of manufacture and use of HFCs under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol will help reduce HFC emissions and concurrently improve the energy efficiency of appliances that use HFCs like air conditioners, freezers and other refrigeration devices.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen leakages contribute to indirect global warming. [102] When hydrogen is oxidized in the atmosphere, the result is an increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases in both the troposphere and the stratosphere. [103] Hydrogen can leak from hydrogen production facilities as well as any infrastructure in which hydrogen is transported, stored, or consumed. [104]

Black carbon

Black carbon is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass. It is not a greenhouse gas but a climate forcing agent. Black carbon can absorb sunlight and reduce albedo when deposited on snow and ice. Indirect heating can be caused by the interaction with clouds. [105] Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks. [106] Emissions may be mitigated by upgrading coke ovens, installing particulate filters on diesel-based engines, reducing routine flaring, and minimizing open burning of biomass.

Emissions by sector

Contributions to climate change broken down by economic sector as of 2019 Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector.svg
Contributions to climate change broken down by economic sector as of 2019
2016 global greenhouse gas emissions by sector. Percentages are calculated from estimated global emissions of all Kyoto Greenhouse Gases, converted to CO2 equivalent quantities (GtCO2e). Global GHG Emissions by Sector 2016.png
2016 global greenhouse gas emissions by sector. Percentages are calculated from estimated global emissions of all Kyoto Greenhouse Gases, converted to CO2 equivalent quantities (GtCO2e).

Global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to different sectors of the economy. This provides a picture of the varying contributions of different types of economic activity to climate change, and helps in understanding the changes required to mitigate climate change.

Greenhouse gas emissions can be divided into those that arise from the combustion of fuels to produce energy, and those generated by other processes. Around two thirds of greenhouse gas emissions arise from the combustion of fuels. [108]

Energy may be produced at the point of consumption, or by a generator for consumption by others. Thus emissions arising from energy production may be categorized according to where they are emitted, or where the resulting energy is consumed. If emissions are attributed at the point of production, then electricity generators contribute about 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions. [109] If these emissions are attributed to the final consumer then 24% of total emissions arise from manufacturing and construction, 17% from transportation, 11% from domestic consumers, and 7% from commercial consumers. [110] Around 4% of emissions arise from the energy consumed by the energy and fuel industry itself.

The remaining third of emissions arise from processes other than energy production. 12% of total emissions arise from agriculture, 7% from land use change and forestry, 6% from industrial processes, and 3% from waste. [108]

Electricity generation

Emissions attributed to specific power stations around the world, color-coded by type of fuel used at the station. Lower half focuses on Europe and Asia Guevara 2024 power plant emissions.png
Emissions attributed to specific power stations around the world, color-coded by type of fuel used at the station. Lower half focuses on Europe and Asia

Coal-fired power stations are the single largest emitter, with over 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2018. [112] Although much less polluting than coal plants, natural gas-fired power plants are also major emitters, [113] taking electricity generation as a whole over 25% in 2018. [114] Notably, just 5% of the world's power plants account for almost three-quarters of carbon emissions from electricity generation, based on an inventory of more than 29,000 fossil-fuel power plants across 221 countries. [115] In the 2022 IPCC report, it is noted that providing modern energy services universally would only increase greenhouse gas emissions by a few percent at most. This slight increase means that the additional energy demand that comes from supporting decent living standards for all would be far lower than current average energy consumption. [116]

In March 2024, the International Energy Agency (IEA) reported that in 2023, global CO2 emissions from energy sources increased by 1.1%, rising by 410 million tonnes to a record 37.4 billion tonnes, primarily due to coal. Drought-related decreases in hydropower contributed to a 170 million tonne rise in emissions, which would have otherwise led to a decrease in the electricity sector's emissions. [117] The implementation of clean energy technologies like solar, wind, nuclear, heat pumps, and electric vehicles since 2019 has significantly tempered emissions growth, which would have been threefold without these technologies. [117]

Agriculture, forestry and land use

Agriculture

The amount of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture is significant: The agriculture, forestry and land use sectors contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions. [118] Emissions come from direct greenhouse gas emissions (for example from rice production and livestock farming). [119] And from indirect emissions. With regards to direct emissions, nitrous oxide and methane makeup over half of total greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. [120] Indirect emissions on the other hand come from the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. [121] [122] Furthermore, there is also fossil fuel consumption for transport and fertilizer production. For example, the manufacture and use of nitrogen fertilizer contributes around 5% of all global greenhouse gas emissions. [123] Livestock farming is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. [124] At the same time, livestock farming is affected by climate change.

Farm animals' digestive systems can be put into two categories: monogastric and ruminant. Ruminant cattle for beef and dairy rank high in greenhouse gas emissions. In comparison, monogastric, or pigs and poultry-related foods, are lower. The consumption of the monogastric types may yield less emissions. Monogastric animals have a higher feed-conversion efficiency and also do not produce as much methane. [125] Non-ruminant livestock, such as poultry, emit far fewer greenhouse gases. [126]

There are many strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture (this is one of the goals of climate-smart agriculture). Mitigation measures in the food system can be divided into four categories. These are demand-side changes, ecosystem protections, mitigation on farms, and mitigation in supply chains. On the demand side, limiting food waste is an effective way to reduce food emissions. Changes to a diet less reliant on animal products such as plant-based diets are also effective. [127] :XXV This could include milk substitutes and meat alternatives. Several methods are also under investigation to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock farming. These include genetic selection, [128] [129] introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen, [130] [131] vaccines, feeds, [132] diet modification and grazing management. [133] [134] [135]
Deforestation
Mean annual carbon loss from tropical deforestation Spatial pattern of forest carbon loss across the tropics.webp
Mean annual carbon loss from tropical deforestation

Deforestation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. A study shows annual carbon emissions (or carbon loss) from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase. (0.97 ±0.16 PgC per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ±0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019) [137] [136]

Land-use change
Substantial land-use change contributions to emissions have been made by Latin America, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Pacific Islands. Area of rectangles shows total emissions in 2019 for that region. 2019 Greenhouse gas emissions per capita by region - variwide bar chart - IPCC AR6 WG3 - Fig SPM.2c.svg
Substantial land-use change contributions to emissions have been made by Latin America, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Pacific Islands. Area of rectangles shows total emissions in 2019 for that region.

Land-use change, e.g., the clearing of forests for agricultural use, can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks. [139] Accounting for land-use change can be understood as an attempt to measure "net" emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks. [56] :92–93

There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions. [140] Additionally, there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time. [56] :93 For instance, concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier, e.g., Europe.

In 1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average annual global carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels. [141] [142] [143]

Transport of people and goods

Aviation and shipping (dashed line) produce a significant proportion of global carbon dioxide emissions. World fossil carbon dioxide emissions six top countries and confederations.png
Aviation and shipping (dashed line) produce a significant proportion of global carbon dioxide emissions.

Transportation accounts for 15% of emissions worldwide. [144] Over a quarter of global transport CO2 emissions are from road freight, [145] so many countries are further restricting truck CO2 emissions to help limit climate change. [146]

Maritime transport accounts for 3.5% to 4% of all greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide. [147] [148] In 2022, the shipping industry's 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions made it "the sixth largest greenhouse gas emitter worldwide, ranking between Japan and Germany." [149] [150] [151]

Aviation

Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides, contrails and particulates.In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all CO2 emissions. [152]

In 2020, approximately 3.5% of the overall human impacts on climate are from the aviation sector. The impact of the sector on climate in the last 20 years had doubled, but the part of the contribution of the sector in comparison to other sectors did not change because other sectors grew as well. [153]

Some representative figures for CO2 average direct emissions (not accounting for high-altitude radiative effects) of airliners expressed as CO2 and CO2 equivalent per passenger kilometer: [154]

  • Domestic, short distance, less than 463 km (288 mi): 257 g/km CO2 or 259 g/km (14.7 oz/mile) CO2e
  • Long-distance flights: 113 g/km CO2 or 114 g/km (6.5 oz/mile) CO2e

Buildings and construction

CO2 emissions by fuel type (as of 2023) [86]

  coal (41%)
  oil (32%)
  gas (21%)
  cement (4%)
  others (2%)

In 2018, manufacturing construction materials and maintaining buildings accounted for 39% of carbon dioxide emissions from energy and process-related emissions. Manufacture of glass, cement, and steel accounted for 11% of energy and process-related emissions. [155] Because building construction is a significant investment, more than two-thirds of buildings in existence will still exist in 2050. Retrofitting existing buildings to become more efficient will be necessary to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement; it will be insufficient to only apply low-emission standards to new construction. [156] Buildings that produce as much energy as they consume are called zero-energy buildings, while buildings that produce more than they consume are energy-plus. Low-energy buildings are designed to be highly efficient with low total energy consumption and carbon emissionsa popular type is the passive house. [155]

The construction industry has seen marked advances in building performance and energy efficiency over recent decades. [157] Green building practices that avoid emissions or capture the carbon already present in the environment, allow for reduced footprint of the construction industry, for example, use of hempcrete, cellulose fiber insulation, and landscaping. [158]

In 2019, the building sector was responsible for 12 GtCO2-eq emissions. More than 95% of these emissions were carbon, and the remaining 5% were CH4, N2O, and halocarbon. [159]

The largest contributor to building sector emissions (49% of total) is the production of electricity for use in buildings. [160]

Of global building sector GHG emissions, 28% are produced during the manufacturing process of building materials such as steel, cement (a key component of concrete), [161] and glass. [160] The conventional process inherently related to the production of steel and cement results in large amounts of CO2 emitted. For example, the production of steel in 2018 was responsible for 7 to 9% of the global CO2 emissions. [162]

The remaining 23% of global building sector GHG emissions are produced directly on site during building operations. [160]

Embodied carbon emissions in construction sector

Embodied carbon emissions, or upfront carbon emissions (UCE), are the result of creating and maintaining the materials that form a building. [163] As of 2018, "Embodied carbon is responsible 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 28% of global building sector emissions ... Embodied carbon will be responsible for almost half of total new construction emissions between now and 2050." [164]

GHG emissions which are produced during the mining, processing, manufacturing, transportation and installation of building materials are referred to as the embodied carbon of a material. [165] The embodied carbon of a construction project can be reduced by using low-carbon materials for building structures and finishes, reducing demolition, and reusing buildings and construction materials whenever possible. [160]

Industrial processes

As of 2020 Secunda CTL is the world's largest single emitter, at 56.5 million tonnes CO2 a year. [166]

Mining

Flaring and venting of natural gas in oil wells is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Its contribution to greenhouse gases has declined by three-quarters in absolute terms since a peak in the 1970s of approximately 110 million metric tons/year, and in 2004 accounted for about 1/2 of one percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. [167]

The World Bank estimates that 134 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared or vented annually (2010 datum), an amount equivalent to the combined annual gas consumption of Germany and France or enough to supply the entire world with gas for 16 days. This flaring is highly concentrated: 10 countries account for 70% of emissions, and twenty for 85%. [168]

Steel and aluminum

Steel and aluminum are key economic sectors where CO2 is produced. According to a 2013 study, "in 2004, the steel industry along emits about 590M tons of CO2, which accounts for 5.2% of the global anthropogenic GHG emissions. CO2 emitted from steel production primarily comes from energy consumption of fossil fuel as well as the use of limestone to purify iron oxides." [169]

Plastics

Plastics are produced mainly from fossil fuels. It was estimated that between 3% and 4% of global GHG emissions are associated with plastics' life cycles. [170] The EPA estimates [171] as many as five mass units of carbon dioxide are emitted for each mass unit of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) produced—the type of plastic most commonly used for beverage bottles, [172] the transportation produce greenhouse gases also. [173] Plastic waste emits carbon dioxide when it degrades. In 2018 research claimed that some of the most common plastics in the environment release the greenhouse gases methane and ethylene when exposed to sunlight in an amount that can affect the earth climate. [174] [175]

Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy, if the glass or metal package is single-use, of course.

In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report, the production and incineration of plastics will contribute in the equivalent of 850 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019. With the current trend, annual life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of plastics will grow to 1.34 billion tonnes by 2030. By 2050, the life cycle emissions of plastics could reach 56 billion tonnes, as much as 14 percent of the Earth's remaining carbon budget. [176] The report says that only solutions which involve a reduction in consumption can solve the problem, while others like biodegradable plastic, ocean cleanup, using renewable energy in plastic industry can do little, and in some cases may even worsen it. [177]

Pulp and paper

The global print and paper industry accounts for about 1% of global carbon dioxide emissions. [178] Greenhouse gas emissions from the pulp and paper industry are generated from the combustion of fossil fuels required for raw material production and transportation, wastewater treatment facilities, purchased power, paper transportation, printed product transportation, disposal and recycling.

Various services

Digital services

In 2020, data centers (excluding cryptocurrency mining) and data transmission each used about 1% of world electricity. [179] The digital sector produces between 2% and 4% of global GHG emissions, [180] a large part of which is from chipmaking. [181] However the sector reduces emissions from other sectors which have a larger global share, such as transport of people, [182] and possibly buildings and industry. [183]

Mining for proof-of-work cryptocurrencies requires enormous amounts of electricity and consequently comes with a large carbon footprint. [184] Proof-of-work blockchains such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin, and Monero were estimated to have added between 3 million and 15 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in the period from 1 January 2016 to 30 June 2017. [185] By the end of 2021, Bitcoin was estimated to produce 65.4 million tonnes of CO2, as much as Greece, [186] and consume between 91 and 177 terawatt-hours annually. Bitcoin is the least energy-efficient cryptocurrency, using 707.6 kilowatt-hours of electricity per transaction. [187] [188] [189]

A study in 2015 investigated the global electricity usage that can be ascribed to Communication Technology (CT) between 2010 and 2030. Electricity usage from CT was divided into four principle categories: (i) consumer devices, including personal computers, mobile phones, TVs and home entertainment systems; (ii) network infrastructure; (iii) data center computation and storage; and lastly (iv) production of the above categories. The study estimated for the worst-case scenario, that CT electricity usage could contribute up to 23% of the globally released greenhouse gas emissions in 2030. [190]

Health care

The healthcare sector produces 4.4–4.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions. [191]

Based on the 2013 life cycle emissions in the health care sector, it is estimated that the GHG emissions associated with US health care activities may cause an additional 123,000 to 381,000 DALYs annually. [192]

Water supply and sanitation

Solutions exist to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of water and sanitation services. [193] These solutions into three categories which partly overlap: Firstly "reducing water and energy consumption through lean and efficient approaches"; secondly "embracing circular economy to produce energy and valuable products"; and thirdly by "planning to reduce GHG emissions through strategic decisions". [194] :28 The mentioned lean and efficient approaches include for example finding ways to reduce water loss from water networks and to reduce infiltration of rainwater or groundwater into sewers. [194] :29 Also, incentives can to encourage households and industries to reduce their water consumption and their energy requirements for water heating. [194] :31 There is another method to reduce the energy requirements for the treatment of raw water to make drinking water out of it: protecting the quality of the source water better. [194] :32

Tourism

According to UNEP, global tourism is a significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. [195]

Emissions by other characteristics

The responsibility for anthropogenic climate change differs substantially among individuals, e.g. between groups or cohorts.

By type of energy source

Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by IPCC CO2 Emissions from Electricity Production IPCC.png
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by IPCC
Lifecycle GHG emissions, in g CO2-eq. per kWh, UNECE 2020 UNECE 2020 Lifecycle Emissions.png
Lifecycle GHG emissions, in g CO2-eq. per kWh, UNECE 2020

Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the environmental impacts of electricity generation. Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global warming potential (GWP) of energy sources through life-cycle assessment. These are usually sources of only electrical energy but sometimes sources of heat are evaluated. [197] The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source. The scale uses the global warming potential unit, the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), and the unit of electrical energy, the kilowatt hour (kWh). The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source, from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management.

In 2014, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide. This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source. [198] Coal is by far the worst emitter, followed by natural gas, with solar, wind and nuclear all low-carbon. Hydropower, biomass, geothermal and ocean power may generally be low-carbon, but poor design or other factors could result in higher emissions from individual power stations.

By socio-economic class and age

2019 Carbon dioxide emissions by income group - Oxfam data.svg
This pie chart illustrates both total emissions for each income group, and emissions per person within each income group. For example, the 10% with the highest incomes are responsible for half of carbon emissions, and its members emit an average of more than five times as much per person as members of the lowest half of the income scale. [199]
2021 CO2 emissions by income decile - International Energy Agency IEA.svg
Though total CO2 emissions (size of pie charts) differ substantially among high-emitting regions, the pattern of higher income classes emitting more than lower income classes is consistent across regions. [200] The world's top 1% of emitters emit over 1000 times more than the bottom 1%. [200]
Scaling the effect of wealth to the national level: richer (developed) countries emit more CO2 per person than poorer (developing) countries. Emissions are roughly proportional to GDP per person, though the rate of increase diminishes with average GDP/pp of about $10,000. 2021 Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per person versus GDP per person - scatter plot.svg
Scaling the effect of wealth to the national level: richer (developed) countries emit more CO2 per person than poorer (developing) countries. Emissions are roughly proportional to GDP per person, though the rate of increase diminishes with average GDP/pp of about $10,000.

Fueled by the consumptive lifestyle of wealthy people, the wealthiest 5% of the global population has been responsible for 37% of the absolute increase in greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. It can be seen that there is a strong relationship between income and per capita carbon dioxide emissions. [48] Almost half of the increase in absolute global emissions has been caused by the richest 10% of the population. [202] In the newest report from the IPCC 2022, it states that the lifestyle consumptions of the poor and middle class in emerging economies produce approximately 5–50 times less the amount that the high class in already developed high-income countries. [203] [204] Variations in regional, and national per capita emissions partly reflect different development stages, but they also vary widely at similar income levels. The 10% of households with the highest per capita emissions contribute a disproportionately large share of global household greenhouse gas emissions. [204]

Studies find that the most affluent citizens of the world are responsible for most environmental impacts, and robust action by them is necessary for prospects of moving towards safer environmental conditions. [205] [206]

According to a 2020 report by Oxfam and the Stockholm Environment Institute, [207] [208] the richest 1% of the global population have caused twice as much carbon emissions as the poorest 50% over the 25 years from 1990 to 2015. [209] [210] [211] This was, respectively, during that period, 15% of cumulative emissions compared to 7%. [212] The bottom half of the population is directly responsible for less than 20% of energy footprints and consume less than the top 5% in terms of trade-corrected energy. The largest disproportionality was identified to be in the domain of transport, where e.g. the top 10% consume 56% of vehicle fuel and conduct 70% of vehicle purchases. [213] However, wealthy individuals are also often shareholders and typically have more influence [214] and, especially in the case of billionaires, may also direct lobbying efforts, direct financial decisions, and/or control companies.

Based on a study in 32 developed countries, researchers found that "seniors in the United States and Australia have the highest per capita footprint, twice the Western average. The trend is mainly due to changes in expenditure patterns of seniors". [215]

Methods for reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change. Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (i.e., the OECD and former planned economies of the Soviet Union) are required to submit periodic assessments to the UNFCCC of actions they are taking to address climate change. [216] :3 Policies implemented by governments include for example national and regional targets to reduce emissions, promoting energy efficiency, and support for an energy transition.

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. [217] [218] Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100, [219] significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's [220] goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C. [221] [222]

Solar energy and wind power can replace fossil fuels at the lowest cost compared to other renewable energy options. [223] The availability of sunshine and wind is variable and can require electrical grid upgrades, such as using long-distance electricity transmission to group a range of power sources. [224] Energy storage can also be used to even out power output, and demand management can limit power use when power generation is low. Cleanly generated electricity can usually replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and running industrial processes.[ citation needed ] Certain processes are more difficult to decarbonise, such as air travel and cement production. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) can be an option to reduce net emissions in these circumstances, although fossil fuel power plants with CCS technology is currently a high cost climate change mitigation strategy. [225]

Projections for future emissions

Figure 3 from the International Energy Outlook 2023 (IEO2023) report. Aggregate energy-related carbon emissions remain constant to 2050 under the low GDP growth case, otherwise emissions rise significantly. Figure 3 from US Energy Information Administration IEO2023 report.png
Figure 3 from the International Energy Outlook 2023 (IEO2023) report. Aggregate energy‑related carbon emissions remain constant to 2050 under the low GDP growth case, otherwise emissions rise significantly.

In October 2023, the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) released a series of projections out to 2050 based on current ascertainable policy interventions. [226] [227] [228] Unlike many integrated systems models in this field, emissions are allowed to float rather than be pinned to netzero in 2050. A  sensitivity analysis varied key parameters, primarily future GDP growth (2.6% pa as reference, variously 1.8% and 3.4%) and secondarily technological learning rates, future crude oil prices, and similar exogenous inputs. The model results are far from encouraging. In no case did aggregate energy-related carbon emissions ever dip below 2022 levels (see figure 3 plot). The IEO2023 exploration provides a benchmark and suggests that far stronger action is needed.

The annual "Emissions Gap Report" by UNEP stated in 2022 that it was necessary to almost halve emissions. "To get on track for limiting global warming to 1.5°C, global annual GHG emissions must be reduced by 45 per cent compared with emissions projections under policies currently in place in just eight years, and they must continue to decline rapidly after 2030, to avoid exhausting the limited remaining atmospheric carbon budget." [229] :xvi The report commented that the world should focus on broad-based economy-wide transformations and not incremental change. [229] :xvi

In 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Sixth Assessment Report on climate change. It warned that greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030 to have a good chance of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). [230] [231] Or in the words of Secretary-General of the United Nations António Guterres: "Main emitters must drastically cut emissions starting this year". [232]

By country

List of countries

In 2019, China, the United States, India, the EU27+UK, Russia, and Japan - the world's largest CO2 emitters - together accounted for 51% of the population, 62.5% of global gross domestic product, 62% of total global fossil fuel consumption and emitted 67% of total global fossil CO2. Emissions from these five countries and the EU28 show different changes in 2019 compared to 2018: the largest relative increase is found for China (+3.4%), followed by India (+1.6%). On the contrary, the EU27+UK (-3.8%), the United States (-2.6%), Japan (-2.1%) and Russia (-0.8%) reduced their fossil CO2 emissions. [233]

2019 fossil CO2 emissions by country [233]
CountryTotal emissions
(Mton)
Share
(%)
Per capita
(ton)
Per GDP
(ton/k$)
Global Total38,016.57100.004.930.29
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 11,535.2030.348.120.51
Flag of the United States.svg  United States 5,107.2613.4315.520.25
EU27+UK3,303.978.696.470.14
Flag of India.svg  India 2,597.366.831.900.28
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 1,792.024.7112.450.45
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan 1,153.723.039.090.22
International Shipping730.261.92--
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany 702.601.858.520.16
Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 701.991.858.480.68
Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea 651.871.7112.700.30
International Aviation627.481.65--
Flag of Indonesia.svg  Indonesia 625.661.652.320.20
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Saudi Arabia 614.611.6218.000.38
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 584.851.5415.690.32
Flag of South Africa.svg  South Africa 494.861.308.520.68
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 485.001.283.670.19
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 478.151.262.250.15
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia 433.381.1417.270.34
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 415.781.095.010.18
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 364.910.965.450.12
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy, Flag of San Marino.svg  San Marino and the Holy See331.560.875.600.13
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland 317.650.848.350.25
Flag of France.svg  France and Flag of Monaco.svg  Monaco 314.740.834.810.10
Flag of Vietnam.svg  Vietnam 305.250.803.130.39
Flag of Kazakhstan.svg  Kazakhstan 277.360.7314.920.57
Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Taiwan 276.780.7311.650.23
Flag of Thailand.svg  Thailand 275.060.723.970.21
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain and Andorra259.310.685.580.13
Flag of Egypt.svg  Egypt 255.370.672.520.22
Flag of Malaysia.svg  Malaysia 248.830.657.670.27
Flag of Pakistan.svg  Pakistan 223.630.591.090.22
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  United Arab Emirates 222.610.5922.990.34
Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina 199.410.524.420.20
Flag of Iraq.svg  Iraq 197.610.524.890.46
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine 196.400.524.480.36
Flag of Algeria.svg  Algeria 180.570.474.230.37
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands 156.410.419.130.16
Flag of the Philippines.svg  Philippines 150.640.401.390.16
Flag of Bangladesh.svg  Bangladesh 110.160.290.660.14
Flag of Venezuela.svg  Venezuela 110.060.293.360.39
Flag of Qatar.svg  Qatar 106.530.2838.820.41
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czechia 105.690.289.940.25
Flag of Belgium (civil).svg  Belgium 104.410.279.030.18
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria 100.220.260.500.10
Flag of Kuwait.svg  Kuwait 98.950.2623.290.47
Flag of Uzbekistan.svg  Uzbekistan 94.990.252.900.40
Flag of Oman.svg  Oman 92.780.2418.550.67
Flag of Turkmenistan.svg  Turkmenistan 90.520.2415.230.98
Flag of Chile.svg  Chile 89.890.244.900.20
Flag of Colombia.svg  Colombia 86.550.231.740.12
Flag of Romania.svg  Romania 78.630.214.040.14
Flag of Morocco.svg  Morocco 73.910.192.020.27
Flag of Austria.svg  Austria 72.360.198.250.14
Flag of Yugoslavia (1992-2003); Flag of Serbia and Montenegro (2003-2006).svg  Serbia and Montenegro 70.690.197.550.44
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel and Flag of Palestine.svg  Palestine 68.330.187.960.18
Flag of Belarus.svg  Belarus 66.340.177.030.37
Flag of Greece.svg  Greece 65.570.175.890.20
Flag of Peru.svg  Peru 56.290.151.710.13
Flag of Singapore.svg  Singapore 53.370.149.090.10
Flag of Hungary.svg  Hungary 53.180.145.510.17
Flag of Libya.svg  Libya 52.050.147.920.51
Flag of Portugal.svg  Portugal 48.470.134.730.14
Flag of Myanmar.svg  Myanmar 48.310.130.890.17
Flag of Norway.svg  Norway 47.990.138.890.14
Flag of Sweden.svg  Sweden 44.750.124.450.08
Flag of Hong Kong.svg  Hong Kong 44.020.125.880.10
Flag of Finland.svg  Finland 43.410.117.810.16
Flag of Bulgaria.svg  Bulgaria 43.310.116.200.27
Flag of North Korea.svg  North Korea 42.170.111.640.36
Flag of Ecuador.svg  Ecuador 40.700.112.380.21
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg   Switzerland and Flag of Liechtenstein.svg  Liechtenstein 39.370.104.570.07
Flag of New Zealand.svg  New Zealand 38.670.108.070.18
Flag of Ireland.svg  Ireland 36.550.107.540.09
Flag of Slovakia.svg  Slovakia 35.990.096.600.20
Flag of Azerbaijan.svg  Azerbaijan 35.980.093.590.25
Flag of Mongolia.svg  Mongolia 35.930.0911.350.91
Flag of Bahrain.svg  Bahrain 35.440.0921.640.48
Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg  Bosnia and Herzegovina 33.500.099.570.68
Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Trinidad and Tobago 32.740.0923.810.90
Flag of Tunisia.svg  Tunisia 32.070.082.720.25
Flag of Denmark.svg  Denmark 31.120.085.390.09
Flag of Cuba.svg  Cuba 31.040.082.700.11
Flag of Syria.svg  Syria 29.160.081.581.20
Flag of Jordan.svg  Jordan 28.340.072.810.28
Flag of Sri Lanka.svg  Sri Lanka 27.570.071.310.10
Flag of Lebanon.svg  Lebanon 27.440.074.520.27
Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg  Dominican Republic 27.280.072.480.14
Flag of Angola.svg  Angola 25.820.070.810.12
Flag of Bolivia.svg  Bolivia 24.510.062.150.24
Flag of Sudan.svg  Sudan and Flag of South Sudan.svg  South Sudan 22.570.060.400.13
Flag of Guatemala.svg  Guatemala 21.200.061.210.15
Flag of Kenya.svg  Kenya 19.810.050.380.09
Flag of Croatia.svg  Croatia 19.120.054.620.16
Flag of Estonia.svg  Estonia 18.500.0514.190.38
Flag of Ethiopia.svg  Ethiopia 18.250.050.170.07
Flag of Ghana.svg  Ghana 16.840.040.560.10
Flag of Cambodia.svg  Cambodia 16.490.041.000.23
Flags of New Caledonia.svg  New Caledonia 15.660.0455.251.67
Flag of Slovenia.svg  Slovenia 15.370.047.380.19
Flag of Nepal.svg    Nepal 15.020.040.500.15
Flag of Lithuania.svg  Lithuania 13.770.044.810.13
Flag of Cote d'Ivoire.svg  Côte d'Ivoire 13.560.040.530.10
Flag of Georgia.svg  Georgia 13.470.043.450.24
Flag of Tanzania.svg  Tanzania 13.340.040.220.09
Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg  Kyrgyzstan 11.920.031.920.35
Flag of Panama.svg  Panama 11.630.032.750.09
Flag of the Taliban.svg  Afghanistan 11.000.030.300.13
Flag of Yemen.svg  Yemen 10.890.030.370.17
Flag of Zimbabwe.svg  Zimbabwe 10.860.030.630.26
Flag of Honduras.svg  Honduras 10.360.031.080.19
Flag of Cameroon.svg  Cameroon 10.100.030.400.11
Flag of Senegal.svg  Senegal 9.810.030.590.18
Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Luxembourg 9.740.0316.310.14
Flag of Mozambique.svg  Mozambique 9.260.020.290.24
Flag of Moldova.svg  Moldova 9.230.022.290.27
Flag of Costa Rica.svg  Costa Rica 8.980.021.800.09
Flag of North Macedonia.svg  North Macedonia 8.920.024.280.26
Flag of Tajikistan.svg  Tajikistan 8.920.020.960.28
Flag of Paraguay.svg  Paraguay 8.470.021.210.09
Flag of Latvia.svg  Latvia 8.380.024.380.14
Flag of Benin.svg  Benin 8.150.020.690.21
Flag of Mauritania.svg  Mauritania 7.660.021.640.33
Flag of Zambia.svg  Zambia 7.500.020.410.12
Flag of Jamaica.svg  Jamaica 7.440.022.560.26
Flag of Cyprus.svg  Cyprus 7.410.026.190.21
Flag of El Salvador.svg  El Salvador 7.150.021.110.13
Flag of Botswana.svg  Botswana 7.040.022.960.17
Flag of Brunei.svg  Brunei 7.020.0215.980.26
Flag of Laos.svg  Laos 6.780.020.960.12
Flag of Uruguay.svg  Uruguay 6.560.021.890.09
Flag of Armenia.svg  Armenia 5.920.022.020.15
Flag of Curacao.svg  Curaçao 5.910.0236.381.51
Flag of Nicaragua.svg  Nicaragua 5.860.020.920.17
Flag of the Republic of the Congo.svg  Congo 5.800.021.050.33
Flag of Albania.svg  Albania 5.660.011.930.14
Flag of Uganda.svg  Uganda 5.340.010.120.06
Flag of Namibia.svg  Namibia 4.400.011.670.18
Flag of Mauritius.svg  Mauritius 4.330.013.410.15
Flag of Madagascar.svg  Madagascar 4.200.010.160.09
Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg  Papua New Guinea 4.070.010.470.11
Flag of Iceland.svg  Iceland 3.930.0111.530.19
Flag of Puerto Rico.svg  Puerto Rico 3.910.011.070.04
Flag of Barbados.svg  Barbados 3.830.0113.340.85
Flag of Burkina Faso.svg  Burkina Faso 3.640.010.180.08
Flag of Haiti.svg  Haiti 3.580.010.320.18
Flag of Gabon.svg  Gabon 3.480.011.650.11
Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg  Equatorial Guinea 3.470.012.550.14
Flag of France.svg  Réunion 3.020.013.40-
Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg  Democratic Republic of the Congo 2.980.010.030.03
Flag of Guinea.svg  Guinea 2.920.010.220.09
Flag of Togo (3-2).svg  Togo 2.850.010.350.22
Flag of the Bahamas.svg  Bahamas 2.450.016.080.18
Flag of Niger.svg  Niger 2.360.010.100.08
Flag of Bhutan.svg  Bhutan 2.120.012.570.24
Flag of Suriname.svg  Suriname 2.060.013.590.22
Flag-of-Martinique.svg  Martinique 1.950.015.07-
Flag of France.svg  Guadeloupe 1.870.004.17-
Flag of Malawi.svg  Malawi 1.620.000.080.08
Flag of Guyana.svg  Guyana 1.520.001.940.20
Flag of Sierra Leone.svg  Sierra Leone 1.400.000.180.10
Flag of Fiji.svg  Fiji 1.360.001.480.11
Flag of Palau.svg  Palau 1.330.0059.884.09
Flag of Macau.svg  Macao 1.270.001.980.02
Flag of Liberia.svg  Liberia 1.210.000.240.17
Flag of Rwanda.svg  Rwanda 1.150.000.090.04
Flag of Eswatini.svg  Eswatini 1.140.000.810.11
Flag of Djibouti.svg  Djibouti 1.050.001.060.20
Flag of Seychelles.svg  Seychelles 1.050.0010.980.37
Flag of Malta.svg  Malta 1.040.002.410.05
Flag of Mali.svg  Mali 1.030.000.050.02
Flag of Cape Verde.svg  Cabo Verde 1.020.001.830.26
Flag of Somalia.svg  Somalia 0.970.000.060.57
Flag of Maldives.svg  Maldives 0.910.002.020.09
Flag of Chad.svg  Chad 0.890.000.060.04
Flag of Aruba.svg  Aruba 0.780.007.390.19
Flag of Eritrea.svg  Eritrea 0.750.000.140.08
Flag of Lesotho.svg  Lesotho 0.750.000.330.13
Flag of Gibraltar.svg  Gibraltar 0.690.0019.880.45
Flag of France.svg  French Guiana 0.610.002.06-
Flag of French Polynesia.svg  French Polynesia 0.600.002.080.10
Flag of The Gambia.svg  The Gambia 0.590.000.270.11
Flag of Greenland.svg  Greenland 0.540.009.470.19
Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg  Antigua and Barbuda 0.510.004.900.24
Flag of the Central African Republic.svg  Central African Republic 0.490.000.100.11
Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg  Guinea-Bissau 0.440.000.220.11
Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg  Cayman Islands 0.400.006.380.09
Flag of East Timor.svg  Timor-Leste 0.380.000.280.10
Flag of Belize.svg  Belize 0.370.000.950.14
Flag of Bermuda.svg  Bermuda 0.350.005.750.14
Flag of Burundi.svg  Burundi 0.340.000.030.04
Flag of Saint Lucia.svg  Saint Lucia 0.300.001.650.11
Flag of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.svg  Western Sahara 0.300.000.51-
Flag of Grenada.svg  Grenada 0.230.002.100.12
Flag of the Comoros.svg  Comoros 0.210.000.250.08
Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg  Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.190.003.440.14
Flag of Sao Tome and Principe.svg  São Tomé and Príncipe 0.160.000.750.19
Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0.150.001.320.11
Flag of Samoa.svg  Samoa 0.140.000.700.11
Flag of the Solomon Islands.svg  Solomon Islands 0.140.000.220.09
Flag of Tonga.svg  Tonga 0.130.001.160.20
Flag of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg  Turks and Caicos Islands 0.130.003.700.13
Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg  British Virgin Islands 0.120.003.770.17
Flag of Dominica.svg  Dominica 0.100.001.380.12
Flag of Vanuatu.svg  Vanuatu 0.090.000.300.09
Flag of France.svg  Saint Pierre and Miquelon 0.060.009.72-
Flag of the Cook Islands.svg  Cook Islands 0.040.002.51-
Flag of the Falkland Islands.svg  Falkland Islands 0.030.0010.87-
Flag of Kiribati.svg  Kiribati 0.030.000.280.13
Flag of Anguilla.svg  Anguilla 0.020.001.540.12
Flag of Saint Helena.svg  Saint Helena, Flag of Ascension Island.svg  Ascension and Flag of Tristan da Cunha.svg  Tristan da Cunha 0.020.003.87-
Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg  Faroe Islands 0.000.000.040.00

United States

Though the U.S.'s per capita and per GDP emissions have declined significantly, the raw numerical decline in emissions is much less substantial. 1990- Annual greenhouse gas emissions - U.S. - line chart.svg
Though the U.S.'s per capita and per GDP emissions have declined significantly, the raw numerical decline in emissions is much less substantial.
The United States produced 5.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020, [235] the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person. In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GHG, followed by the United States with 11%, then India with 6.6%. [236] In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG, more than any other country. [237] [238] [239] Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and, amongst the top eight emitters, is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person. [240]

China

20210703 Variwide chart of greenhouse gas emissions per capita by country (includes OTHER).svg
China has the most total annual emissions (area of rectangle) of any nation, and has higher than average per capita emissions. [241]
20220712 Global economic damage due to greenhouse gas emissions - by country.svg
Cumulatively over time, China is the second-largest contributor nation to global economic damage from emissions, following the U.S. [242]
China's total greenhouse gas emissions are the world's highest, accounting for 35% of the world's total according to the International Energy Agency. The country's per capita greenhouse gas emissions are the 34th highest of any country, as of 2023.

India

Greenhouse gas emissions by India are the third largest in the world and the main source is coal. [243] India emitted 2.8 Gt of CO2eq in 2016 (2.5 including LULUCF). [244] [245] 79% were CO2, 14% methane and 5% nitrous oxide. [245] India emits about 3 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year; about two tons per person, [246] which is half the world average. [247] The country emits 7% of global emissions. [248]

In India in 2023, emissions increased by 190 million tonnes due to strong GDP growth and reduced hydroelectricity production following a weak monsoon, with its per capita emissions remaining significantly below the global average. [249]

Society and culture

Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic

In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally. [250] In April 2020, NOx emissions fell by up to 30%. [251] In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions. [252] Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions, with the direct impact of pandemic policies having a negligible long-term impact on climate change. [250] [253]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of climate change</span> Effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent global warming

The scientific community has been investigating the causes of climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, it came to a consensus, where it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times." This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide, The dominant role in this climate change has been played by the direct emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. Indirect CO2 emissions from land use change, and the emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases play major supporting roles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global warming potential</span> Potential heat absorbed by a greenhouse gas

Global warming potential (GWP) is an index to measure how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere. The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regard to their "effectiveness in causing radiative forcing". It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide, which is taken as a reference gas. Therefore, the GWP has a value of 1 for CO2. For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emission intensity</span> Emission rate of a pollutant

An emission intensity is the emission rate of a given pollutant relative to the intensity of a specific activity, or an industrial production process; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product (GDP). Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted, the number of animals in animal husbandry, on industrial production levels, distances traveled or similar activity data. Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities. In some case the related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are used interchangeably. The jargon used can be different, for different fields/industrial sectors; normally the term "carbon" excludes other pollutants, such as particulate emissions. One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour (CIPK), which is used to compare emissions from different sources of electrical power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100, significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon footprint</span> Concept to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from activities or products

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be for example tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon capture and storage</span> Process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide from industrial flue gas

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a process by which carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial installations is separated before it is released into the atmosphere, then transported to a long-term storage location. The CO2 is captured from a large point source, such as a natural gas processing plant and is typically stored in a deep geological formation. Around 80% of the CO2 captured annually is used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), a process by which CO2 is injected into partially-depleted oil reservoirs in order to extract more oil and then is largely left underground. Since EOR utilizes the CO2 in addition to storing it, CCS is also known as carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-carbon economy</span> Climate-friendly economy

A low-carbon economy (LCE) is an economy which absorbs as much greenhouse gas as it emits. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to human activity are the dominant cause of observed climate change since the mid-20th century. There are many proven approaches for moving to a low-carbon economy, such as encouraging renewable energy transition, energy conservation, and electrification of transportation. An example are zero-carbon cities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon price</span> CO2 Emission Market

Carbon pricing is a method for governments to mitigate climate change, in which a monetary cost is applied to greenhouse gas emissions. This is done to encourage polluters to reduce fossil fuel combustion, the main driver of climate change. A carbon price usually takes the form of a carbon tax, or an emissions trading scheme (ETS) that requires firms to purchase allowances to emit. The method is widely agreed to be an efficient policy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon pricing seeks to address the economic problem that emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are a negative externality – a detrimental product that is not charged for by any market.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</span> Climate changing gases from the North American country

The United States produced 5.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020, the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person. In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GHG, followed by the United States with 11%, then India with 6.6%. In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG, more than any other country. Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and, amongst the top eight emitters, is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-carbon electricity</span> Power produced with lower carbon dioxide emissions

Low-carbon electricity or low-carbon power is electricity produced with substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions over the entire lifecycle than power generation using fossil fuels. The energy transition to low-carbon power is one of the most important actions required to limit climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas</span> Gas in an atmosphere with certain absorption characteristics

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. What distinguishes them from other gases is that they absorb the wavelengths of radiation that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. The Earth is warmed by sunlight, causing its surface to radiate heat, which is then mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F), rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of the energy industry</span>

The environmental impact of the energy industry is significant, as energy and natural resource consumption are closely related. Producing, transporting, or consuming energy all have an environmental impact. Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia. Initially it was with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years. In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources. Scientific consensus on some of the main human activities that contribute to global warming are considered to be increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, causing a warming effect, global changes to land surface, such as deforestation, for a warming effect, increasing concentrations of aerosols, mainly for a cooling effect.

Increasing methane emissions are a major contributor to the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, and are responsible for up to one-third of near-term global heating. During 2019, about 60% of methane released globally was from human activities, while natural sources contributed about 40%. Reducing methane emissions by capturing and utilizing the gas can produce simultaneous environmental and economic benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon budget</span> Limit on carbon dioxide emission for a given climate impact

A carbon budget is a concept used in climate policy to help set emissions reduction targets in a fair and effective way. It examines the "maximum amount of cumulative net global anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions that would result in limiting global warming to a given level". It can be expressed relative to the pre-industrial period. In this case, it is the total carbon budget. Or it can be expressed from a recent specified date onwards. In that case it is the remaining carbon budget.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</span>

The amount of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture is significant: The agriculture, forestry and land use sectors contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions come from direct greenhouse gas emissions. And from indirect emissions. With regards to direct emissions, nitrous oxide and methane makeup over half of total greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Indirect emissions on the other hand come from the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. Furthermore, there is also fossil fuel consumption for transport and fertilizer production. For example, the manufacture and use of nitrogen fertilizer contributes around 5% of all global greenhouse gas emissions. Livestock farming is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, livestock farming is affected by climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia</span> Greenhouse gas emissions originating from Russia and efforts to reduce them

Greenhouse gas emissionsbyRussia are mostly from fossil gas, oil and coal. Russia emits 2 or 3 billion tonnes CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year; about 4% of world emissions. Annual carbon dioxide emissions alone are about 12 tons per person, more than double the world average. Cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and therefore air pollution in Russia, would have health benefits greater than the cost. The country is the world's biggest methane emitter, and 4 billion dollars worth of methane was estimated to leak in 2019/20.

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