Climate change in Iraq

Last updated
Geography of Iraq
Iraq physical map.svg
ContinentAsia
RegionMiddle East
Coordinates33 00 N, 44 00 E
Area Ranked 60
 • Total438,317 km2 (169,235 sq mi)
Coastline58 km (36 mi)
Borders Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west.
Highest point Cheekha Dar
3,611 m (11,847 ft)
Lowest point Persian Gulf
0 m (0.0 ft)
Longest river Euphrates
Largest lake Lake Tharthar
Natural resources Petroleum, sulfur, phosphate, and natural gas. [1]

In Iraq, climate change has led to environmental impacts such as increasing temperatures, decreasing precipitation, land degradation, and water scarcity. [2] Climate change poses numerous risks to human health, livelihoods, political stability, and the sustainable development of the nation. [2] The combination of ecological factors, conflict, weak governance, and an impeded capacity to mitigate climate change, has made Iraq uniquely at risk to the negative effects of climate change, with the UN ranking them the 5th most vulnerable country to climate change. [3] Rising temperatures, intensified droughts, declining precipitation, desertification, salinization, and the increasing prevalence of dust storms are challenges Iraq faces due in to the negative impacts of climate change. National and regional political instability and conflict have made it difficult to mitigate the effects of climate change, address transnational water management, and develop sustainably. [2] Climate change has negatively impacted Iraq's population through loss of economic opportunity, food insecurity, water scarcity, and displacement.

Contents

Water-related challenges are at the forefront of Iraq's environmental problems. Models predict that precipitation will decrease by 9% and mean annual temperatures will increase by 2°C by 2050. [4] The flow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which provide 98% of Iraq's surface water, has decreased by 30-40% in the past 40 years. [5] The water resources of these two rivers are also shared with neighboring countries. Iraq's water supplies have significantly decreased over time due to dam construction from upstream nations. [6]

In 2019 Iraq contributed 0.5% to global carbon emissions. [7] Iraq's energy sector and fugitive emissions account for three-fourths of the nation's emissions. [7] Specifically, Iraq's oil and gas sectors produced 9% of global methane emissions in 2019, a portion of which is from gas flares. [2] The waste, industrial, and agriculture sectors are the other sectors contributing to Iraq's greenhouse gas emissions.

Iraq produced an Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC), which is a set of policies and goals for how Iraq can address climate change. Iraq wants to reduce emissions by 15% by 2035, with a specific focus on lowering their methane emissions. [8] Iraq ratified the Paris Treaty in 2021 and committed to specific actions to reduce methane emissions in the oil and gas sector, which are coordinated by a newly established inter-ministerial national task force on methane emissions. [9]

Impacts on the natural environment

Iraq is ecologically vulnerable to climate change due to a variety of interconnected reasons. Iraq is in a dry region of the world and it can be divided into three areas: the arid deserts of the south, the semi-arid alluvial plains, and the mountainous northern region. [7] Along with its arid land, Iraq has faced political turmoil, poor management of scarce resources, and the degradation of key ecosystems. [10]

Temperature and weather changes

Koppen-Geiger Map IRQ present.svg
Köppen climate classification map for Iraq for 1980–2016
Koppen-Geiger Map IRQ future.svg
2071–2100 map under the most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely [11] [12] [13]

Heat waves and the average temperature have been increasing rapidly in Iraq. The mean temperature of Iraq has increased at a rate of 0.7 degrees Celsius per century. These rising global temperatures have intensified water scarcity and desertification in Iraq. [14] The average weather conditions of Iraq consist of a wet and dry season. However, climate change intensifies these seasons, which leads to extreme drought and flooding events. The southern and central regions of Iraq show display patterns of decreased precipitation. [15] The changes in temperature and precipitation have led to an increase in dust and sand storms throughout Iraq. [16] Desertification, or the degradation of biologically productive land into infertile desert, is increasing in Iraq. A study monitoring the spatial land patterns of Iraq found that from 1990 to 2014, the desert area increased by 5%. [17] As of 2022, 39% of Iraq's land was affected by desertification. [18]

Water resources

The Tigris-Euphrates River System and its given watershed account for 98% of surface water in Iraq, integral to the diverse ecosystem. The total catchment area (the area in which rainfall flows into bodies of water) is estimated to have a size of 430,000 Square Kilometers (km²), about 46% of the whole country. [19] Iraq's waterbodies and river basins are uniquely vulnerable to the impacts of Climate Change in the 21st century, through global warming, declining precipitation rates, altered distribution patterns, salinity, and evaporation. [19] Iraq is facing acute water stress. With the decrease in precipitation rates, models have predicted that the available water will decrease while the demand for crop water increases. [20] Due to a combination of factors, the most of important of which is increasing temperatures, water flow will decrease in Iraq by 25 to 50%. [21] The significant drops in annual rainfall will not only affect water levels and flow but will have detrimental impacts on agriculture and human health. [21]

As water levels fall, increasing salinity of the water supply has become a concern in southern Iraq, especially in Basra. [22]

Extreme weather events

Climate change has intensified extreme weather events, particularly droughts and floods. Decreased rainfall and increasing temperatures are the main drivers of drought. Iraq's drought problem has only deepened, with 2018 and 2021 being the first and second driest recorded years, respectively. [16]

Mesopotamian Marshes

The Mesopotamian Marshes in southern Iraq, an ecosystem important to animals and humans alike, has deteriorated due to anthropogenic factors and climate change. After the draining of the marshes, the marsh ecosystem has become much more susceptible to impacts such as water shortages, heat waves, and drought. [6] Sea level rise and water salinization combined with long dry periods have deteriorated the marshes. As of 2023, the Center for Restoration of Iraqi Marshes and Wetlands at the Ministry for Water Resources estimates that 70% of the marshes are devoid of water. [23]

Impacts on people

Climate change has led to numerous negative impacts on the people of Iraq, including health issues, displacement from land, economic struggles, and resource scarcity. Rising temperatures, changes in patterns of precipitation, land degradation, and drought have negatively impacted agriculture, leading to lower yields and loss of arable land. [4] These impacts cause agriculture-reliant rural populations to move to urban centers because of decreasing natural resources and economic opportunities. [16] Agricultural impacts also threaten the food security of Iraq. Water scarcity and pollution have led to waterborne illnesses and improper sanitation. [24]

Additionally, the relationship between climate change and regional conflict dynamics in Iraq negatively impacts livelihoods. The combination of weak governance, scarce natural resources, and conflict poses unique challenges to the livelihoods of the Iraqi people; for instance, resource scarcity that leads to in-community tension or weak governance leading to mismanagement of water. [25]

Iraqi Kurdish villagers in field near Turkish border Iraqi Kurdish villagers in field near Turkish border.jpg
Iraqi Kurdish villagers in field near Turkish border

Economic impacts

Iraq's economy is extremely dependent on oil, which makes the nation more at risk to market volatility. [26] Iraq's agricultural sector accounts for approximately 5% of the nation's GDP and is the source of livelihood for about 25% of the population. [4] Iraq's largest food-producing industries, agriculture, livestock husbandry, and fishing, have all been negatively affected by the effects of climate change. [27] With reduced precipitation and scarce water, desertification, and soil degradation, both livelihoods and food security are put at risk.

Internally displaced people

Climate change both negatively impacts and contributes to Iraq's large population of internally displaced people. In 2022, Iraq experienced the worst drought in 40 years which led to the internal displacement of 69,000 people. [28] Research has found the strongest predictors for the risk of climate change-related displacement are: water-related issues, food security, lack of infrastructure and services, and reliance on land for their livelihood. [29] Drought and desertification in rural areas, which leads to loss the of livelihood and crop failure, has caused internal displacement and increased rural to urban migration. [29]

Health impacts

Climate change-related hazards and risks cause several negative human health impacts. Rising temperatures have led to more cases of heat stroke. [4] Reduced water quality and quantity increases the incidence of water-borne illnesses such as cholera. In 2021 Unicef estimated that 3 out of 5 children in Iraq do not have access to safe drinking water. [30] In 2018. in Iraq's Basra Province, 118,000 individuals were hospitalized due to contaminated water. [31] Dust and sand storms, which are projected to increase, cause respiratory infections, asthma, and other long-term health issues. [32] Agriculture is impeded by the combined effects of climate change, which puts food security at risk. [4] The presence of extreme weather events such as flooding and storms has led to displacement, injury, and death.

Historical and political factors

Iraq's arid land is ecologically more likely to face the negative impacts of climate change; however, a history of war, political instability, and mismanagement of natural resources are also responsible for intensifying the adverse effects of climate change. [33] The Gulf War (1990-1991) and the Iraq War (2003-2011) are two periods that highlight how socio-political factors drove how term climate change impacts. [34] With the US-led invasion of Iraq and the subsequent mass displacement of up to 9.2 million Iraqis, 4.7 million people were food insecure. [34] [35] As of 2017, 3.2 million still need assistance with food. [35]

Marsh Arabs in a mashoof Marsh Arabs in a mashoof.jpg
Marsh Arabs in a mashoof

Saddam Hussein

In 1992, during the Gulf War, Saddam Hussein ordered the draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes of southern Iraq to punish the Marsh Arabs for revolting during the 1991 Iraqi uprising against his government. Over 90% of the marshes was lost during Hussein's rule, which has intensified the effects of climate change. [36] The draining led to the internal displacement of over 200,000 Ma'dan (Marsh Arabs) over the 1990s. [37] The Marsh Arabs endured a government-backed campaign of violence which countries such as the United States have deemed to be an act of ecocide or ethnic cleansing. [38] [39]

Society and culture

Activism

Due to the fragility of Iraq's government body, NGOs and civil society could play a huge role in fighting climate change in Iraq. In reality, climate activism is only just getting off the ground in recent years. [40] During Saddam Hussein's regime, activism and governmental accountability was completely stifled. [41] In 2010, the Iraqi government established the Civil Society Organization Law, a framework to register as a civil society organization. [42] By 2023, about 6,000 to 12,000 non-governmental organizations were established, 185 of which are environmental. [41] Notable recent and current activism efforts include- Save Basra campaign against water pollution in 2018, [43] Nature Iraq, Save the Tigris, and the Tishereen Movement. In the 21st century, from Human Rights Watch reports, environmental activists have been abducted, detained and prosecuted. [44] Demonstrations and clashes over water rights have also occurred in southern Iraq. [45]

Controversies

Controversies surrounding climate change in Iraq include the 2018 Save Basra protests in response to the ongoing water crisis and pollution. [46] [31] Three civilian protesters were killed, and forty-seven were injured, according to the Human Rights Watch organization. [47] Quoting the Human Rights Watch, "the interior ministry force used excessive and unnecessary force" in response to the climate protesters. Other controversies include the Marsh Arab Displacement (1970s to 2000s). In July 2022, electricity blackouts were exacerbated by militant attacks on powerlines, combined with a reduction in power supplied by Iran. Protests were held in Baghdad and Sadr City, where residents were left without air conditioning in 50 °C heat. [48]

International collaboration

USAID, a United States governmental agency investing in foreign development, has put in 150 million dollars to improve water quality, access and handling. [49] The United Nations, alongside the government of Iraq, the United States and international donors created the Funding Facility for Stabilization (FFS) with over 1.4 billion dollars allocated for restoring essential services. [50]

Arts and media

Media plays a huge role in the dissemination of information throughout Iraq, expanding the conversation worldwide. Outlets such as Al-Jazeera English have published documentary films on the ongoing water crisis, as well as peace building series: Climate Change in Iraq, which aims to engage with youth. [51]

Mitigation and adaptation

Mitigation

Many international organizations are developing mitigation approaches for localized and statewide use. Economic and political reform will in turn help developing strategies to fight climate change. [52] There is increasing initiatives on regional dialogue on climate change, and these initiatives are particularly prominent in the largest cities such as Baghdad. [53]

Mitigation strategies involve reducing methane, which is seen by many groups, scientists, and activists as one of the most cost-effective and simplest ways to reduce climate change. [54] As Iraq contributes heavily to methane emissions due to gas and oil production, the Iraqi government has aims to reduce the greenhouse gas emission by 15% by 2030. [8]

Adaptation

To increase climate resilience in Iraq many initiatives, including the National Adaptation Plan (NAP), in the last decade. A three-year initiative to bolster technological, institutional and financial capabilities in order to guarantee future adaptation strategies are incorporated into the countries development. [55] Agriculture and climate resilience projects have become significant, with international funding and backing in projects working towards addressing the crisis facing farmers across Iraq. [56] Most of these projects are implemented through international collaboration and funding by international donors: The Swedish Government has promised over 10 million to build climate resilient agriculture strategies. [57]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drought</span> Period with less precipitation than normal

A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions. A drought can last for days, months or years. Drought often has large impacts on the ecosystems and agriculture of affected regions, and causes harm to the local economy. Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing, with subsequent increased wildfire risks. Heat waves can significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration. This dries out forests and other vegetation, and increases the amount of fuel for wildfires.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental degradation</span> Any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. The environmental degradation process amplifies the impact of environmental issues which leave lasting impacts on the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Africa</span>

African environmental problems are problems caused by the direct and indirect human impacts on the natural environment and affect humans and nearly all forms of life in Africa. Issues include deforestation, soil degradation, air pollution, water pollution, coastal erosion, garbage pollution, climate change and water scarcity. These issues result in environmental conflict and are connected to broader social struggles for democracy and sovereignty. The scarcity of climate adaptation techniques in Africa makes it the least resilient continent to climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the African continent related to climate change

Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to the effects of climate change. Some sources even classify Africa as "the most vulnerable continent on Earth". Climate change and climate variability will likely reduce agricultural production, food security and water security. As a result, there will be negative consequences on people's lives and sustainable development in Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Pakistan</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Pakistan related to climate change

Climate change in Pakistan is a major issue for the country. Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change. As with the changing climate in South Asia as a whole, the climate of Pakistan has changed over the past several decades, with significant impacts on the environment and people. In addition to increased heat, drought and extreme weather in parts of the country, the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas has impacted some of the important rivers of Pakistan. Between 1999 and 2018, Pakistan ranked 5th in the countries affected by extreme weather caused by climate change. Pakistan is prone to a range of natural disasters, including cyclones, floods, drought, intense rainfall, and earthquakes. According to scientific research, climate change played a substantial role in the devastating floods of 2022, which had a direct impact on over 30 million people in Pakistan, resulting in the loss of lives, damage to public infrastructure, and displacement from homes. Climate change poses a significant menace to Pakistan's economy and security.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Argentina</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Argentina related to climate change

Climate change is predicted to have significant effects on the living conditions in Argentina. The climate of Argentina is changing with regards to precipitation patterns and temperatures. The highest increases in the precipitation have occurred in the eastern parts of the country. The increase in precipitation has led to more variability in precipitation from year to year in the northern parts of the country, with a higher risk of prolonged droughts, disfavoring agriculture in these regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Afghanistan</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Afghanistan related to climate change

In Afghanistan, climate change has led to a temperature increase of 1.8 °C since 1950. This has caused far-reaching impacts on Afghanistan, culminating from overlapping interactions of natural disasters, conflict, agricultural dependency, and severe socio-economic hardship.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Egypt</span>

Climate change is causing Egypt’s already hot and arid climate to experience environmental stresses including extreme temperatures, droughts, floods, and sea level rise. These extreme conditions will have significant impacts on the lives of Egyptians resulting in food insecurity, water scarcity, and economic destabilization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Tanzania</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Tanzania related to climate change

Climate change in Tanzania is affecting the natural environment and residents of Tanzania. Temperatures in Tanzania are rising with a higher likelihood of intense rainfall events and of dry spells.

Climate change in Somalia refers to changes in the climate in Somalia and the subsequent response, adaption and mitigation strategies of the country. Climate models predict that the East Africa region is likely to experience both near-term alterations in climate such as warmer temperatures, changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme events, and decreased precipitation, as well as long-term shifts such as sea level rise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Senegal</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Senegal related to climate change

Climate change in Senegal will have wide reaching impacts on many aspects of life in Senegal. Climate change will cause an increase in average temperatures over west Africa by between 1.5 and 4 °C by mid-century, relative to 1986–2005. Projections of rainfall indicate an overall decrease in rainfall and an increase in intense mega-storm events over the Sahel. The sea level is expected to rise faster in West Africa than the global average. Although Senegal is currently not a major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, it is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Kenya</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Kenya related to climate change

Climate change is posing an increasing threat to global socio-economic development and environmental sustainability. Developing countries with low adaptive capacity and high vulnerability to the phenomenon are disproportionately affected. Climate change in Kenya is increasingly impacting the lives of Kenya's citizens and the environment. Climate Change has led to more frequent extreme weather events like droughts which last longer than usual, irregular and unpredictable rainfall, flooding and increasing temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Iran</span> Emissions, impacts and responses in Iran related to climate change

Iran is among the most vulnerable countries to climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Iran contributes to about 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), and is ranked 8th in greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) world wide and is ranked first in the MENA region due to its reliance on oil and natural gas. Climate change has led to reduced precipitation as well as increased temperatures, with Iran holding the hottest temperature recorded in Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the MENA region related to climate change

Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) refers to changes in the climate of the MENA region and the subsequent response, adaption and mitigation strategies of countries in the region. In 2018, the MENA region emitted 3.2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide and produced 8.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) despite making up only 6% of the global population. These emissions are mostly from the energy sector, an integral component of many Middle Eastern and North African economies due to the extensive oil and natural gas reserves that are found within the region. The region of Middle East is one of the most vulnerable to climate change. The impacts include increase in drought conditions, aridity, heatwaves and sea level rise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and food security in Africa</span> Climate change and food security

Climate change in Africa is reducing its food security. Climate change at the global, continental, and sub-continental levels has been observed to include an increase in air and ocean temperatures, sea-level rise, a decrease in snow and ice extent, an increase and decrease in precipitation, changes in terrestrial and marine biological systems, and ocean acidification. The agricultural industry is responsible for more than 60% of full time employment in Africa, millions of people in Africa depend on the agricultural industry for their economic well-being and means of subsistence. A variety of climate change-related factors such as worsening pests and diseases that damage agriculture and livestock, altered rainfall patterns, rising temperatures, droughts, and floods are having a negative impact on the agricultural industry in Africa. Many African populations access to food is being impacted by these climate effects on the agricultural industry, which result in a trend of decreasing crop yields, animal losses, and rising food prices.

Climate change in Botswana refers to changes in the climate in Botswana and the subsequent response, adaptation and mitigation strategies of the country. It is expected to lead to increased intensity of droughts and increased frequencies this is due to shorter rainy seasons and fewer rainy days. Due to fluctuation on climate and weather the country may sometimes experience heavy destructive rains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Zimbabwe</span>

Climate change impacts are occurring in Zimbabwe. Climate change is the result of the Earth's climate undergoing long-term changes due to the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming and a hotter planet. Human activities, such as the use of fossil fuels, as well as large-scale commercial agriculture and deforestation, are responsible for the release of these greenhouse gases. The country's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is very minimal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Namibia</span>

Climate change is the consequence of long-term alterations in the Earth's climate caused by the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). These gases can trap heat in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming and a heightened temperature on our planet. The activities carried out by humans, such as the utilization of fossil fuels, along with large-scale commercial agriculture and deforestation, are accountable for the release of these greenhouse gases. The escalating temperatures and escalating extreme heat conditions, uncertain and progressively unpredictable precipitation, and extreme weather provoke new challenges and exacerbate existing ones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Lesotho</span>

Lesotho is a country in southern Africa that is already experiencing the negative effects of climate change, including increased frequency of extreme weather, such as droughts, increased rates of soil erosion and desertification, and reduced soil fertility. Lesotho is a landlocked country that is particularly vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate variability and changes in water and food security, as well as adverse conditions to health, human settlements, and the energy sector.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Malawi</span>

Malawi is a land-locked country in southeastern Africa situated along the southernmost arm of the East African Rift-Valley System between latitudes 9°22’ and 17°03’ south of the equator, and longitudes 33°40’ and 35°55’ east of the Greenwich meridian. It shares borders with Tanzania in the north and northeast, Mozambique in the southwest, south, and east, and Zambia in the west. Malawi is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change as the vast majority of Malawians rely on small-scale, rain-fed agriculture, making them highly dependent on weather patterns. Climate change increasingly exacerbates droughts, flooding, and inconsistent rainfall—contributing to food insecurity and threatening to derail progress toward Malawi's goal of self-reliance.

References

  1. ↑ "Natural Resources of Iraq". WorldAtlas. 2019-07-24. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Climate change is the biggest threat Iraq has ever faced, but there is hope to turn things around". unsdg.un.org. Retrieved 2023-11-11.
  3. ↑ Wehrey, Frederic Wehrey (July 6, 2023). "Climate Change and Vulnerability in the Middle East". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 "Climate Risk Profile: Iraq". www.climatelinks.org. 2017-03-03. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  5. ↑ Hall, Natasha (2023-12-05). "Local to Global: Tensions Course through Iraq's Waterways". Center for Strategic and International Studies.
  6. 1 2 Bruneau, Charlotte; Al-sudani, Thaier (2021-10-14). "'Our whole life depends on water': Climate change, pollution and dams threaten Iraq's Marsh Arabs". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  7. 1 2 3 "Iraq Country Climate and Development Report". World Bank. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  8. 1 2 "Iraq Includes Methane in its Nationally Determined Contributions, Citing Health and Development Benefits". www.ccacoalition.org. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  9. ↑ "As Iraq joins Paris Agreement, UN calls for further support to help the country adapt". iraq.un.org.
  10. ↑ Al-Obaidy, A. H. M. J., & Al-Khateeb, M. (2013). The challenges of water sustainability in Iraq. Engineering and Technology Journal, 31(5), 828-840.
  11. ↑ Hausfather, Zeke; Peters, Glen (29 January 2020). "Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading". Nature. 577 (7792): 618–20. Bibcode:2020Natur.577..618H. doi: 10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3 . PMID   31996825.
  12. ↑ Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam; Koven, Charlie; Leshyk, Victor; Lawrence, David; Loranty, Michael M.; Mauritz, Marguerite; Olefeldt, David; Natali, Susan; Rodenhizer, Heidi; Salmon, Verity; Schädel, Christina; Strauss, Jens; Treat, Claire; Turetsky, Merritt (2022). "Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 47: 343–371. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 . Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement...
  13. ↑ Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022). "Explainer: IPCC Scenarios". Cosmos . Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023. "The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C.
  14. ↑ International Organization for Migration (2022). "Migration, Environment and Climate Change in Iraq".
  15. ↑ USAID (3 March 2017). "Climate Risk Profile: Iraq". Climatelinks. Retrieved 2019-08-10.
  16. 1 2 3 "Climate Risk Profile: Iraq". adelphi.de. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  17. ↑ Ajaj, Qayssar Mahmood; Pradhan, Biswajeet; Noori, Abbas Mohammed; Jebur, Mustafa Neamah (November 2017). "Spatial Monitoring of Desertification Extent in Western Iraq using Landsat Images and GIS". Land Degradation & Development. 28 (8): 2418–2431. Bibcode:2017LDeDe..28.2418A. doi:10.1002/ldr.2775. ISSN   1085-3278. S2CID   134026184.
  18. ↑ "Iraq: Expanding deserts, searing temperatures, and dying land: Climate crises deepen struggle of farmers". International Committee of the Red Cross. 2022-11-14.
  19. 1 2 Giovanis; Eleftherios; Ozdamar; Oznur (December 9, 2021). "The Transboundary Effects of Climate Change and Global Adaptation: the Case of the Euphrates-Tigris Water Basin in Turkey and Iraq". SSRN Electronic Journal. SSRN   4320746.
  20. ↑ Salman, Saleem A.; Shahid, Shamsuddin; Sharafati, Ahmad; Salem, Golam Saleh Ahmed; Bakar, Amyrhul Abu; Farooque, Aitazaz Ahsan; Chung, Eun-Sung; Ahmed, Yaseen Adnan; Mikhail, Bryukhov; Yaseen, Zaher Mundher (December 2021). "Projection of Agricultural Water Stress for Climate Change Scenarios: A Regional Case Study of Iraq". Agriculture. 11 (12): 1288. doi: 10.3390/agriculture11121288 . ISSN   2077-0472.
  21. 1 2 "Water, peace and security (WPS) partnership: Iraq". climate-diplomacy.org. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  22. ↑ Cooke, Kieran (12 Nov 2018). "Iraq's climate stresses are set to worsen". PreventionWeb. Retrieved 2019-08-10.
  23. ↑ "FAO Renews its Call for Urgent Action to safeguard Iraq's Marshes and Buffalo Producers from Severe Climate Change and Water Scarcity [EN/AR]". reliefweb.int. 2023-07-10. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  24. ↑ Zolnikov, T. R. (2013). The maladies of water and war: addressing poor water quality in Iraq. American journal of public health, 103(6), 980-987.
  25. ↑ "Climate change effects on conflict dynamics in Iraq". Berghof Foundation. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  26. ↑ "Overview". World Bank. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  27. ↑ "Case Study: Climate Change Impacts on Livelihoods Food Security and Internal Mobility in Salah Al-Din Governorate". reliefweb.int. 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  28. ↑ "Iraq". IDMC - Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre.
  29. 1 2 "Iraq – Drivers of Climate Induced Displacement: Climate Vulnerability Assessment (October 2023) | Displacement Tracking Matrix". dtm.iom.int. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  30. ↑ "Running Dry: water scarcity threatens lives and development in Iraq". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  31. 1 2 "Basra is Thirsty". Human Rights Watch. 2019-07-22.
  32. ↑ Akpinar-Elci, M., Berumen-Flucker, B., Bayram, H., & Al-Taiar, A. (2021). Climate Change, Dust Storms, Vulnerable Populations, and Health in the Middle East: A Review. Journal of Environmental Health, 84(3).
  33. ↑ "The Deep Roots of Iraq's Climate Crisis". The Century Foundation. 2023-07-11. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  34. 1 2 Jude Larnerd, Nicholas (2023). "Iraq 20 Years After the Invasion: Humanitarian, Displacement, and Climate Change Challenges".
  35. 1 2 "Iraq Food Security Quarterly Update, January - March 2017". reliefweb.int. 2017-05-16. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  36. ↑ "Restoring Iraqi Marshlands Project Launched by UN Environment Programme". press.un.org. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  37. ↑ Nadeem A Kazmi, Sayyed (2000). "The Marshlands of Southern Iraq: A Very Humanitarian Dilemma" (PDF). III Jornadas de Medio Oriente.
  38. ↑ F. Burns, John (2003). "The World; The Killing of Iraq's Ancient Marsh Culture".
  39. ↑ "The Marsh Arabs of Iraq: Hussein's Lesser Known Victims". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  40. ↑ Yassin, Maha (2022-01-21). "Climate Activism in Iraq: A Dangerous Undertaking". IPI Global Observatory. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  41. 1 2 "The Space for Iraqi Climate Activism Is Dangerously Small, and Shrinking". The Century Foundation. 2023-08-30. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  42. ↑ "Iraq Civil Society Organizations – Iraq Research". www.irfad.org. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  43. ↑ "Iraq: Activists Campaign to 'Save Basra', Health Ministry Denies Cholera Outbreaks". english.aawsat.com. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  44. ↑ "Iraq: Environmentalists Face Retaliation". Human Rights Watch. 2023-02-23. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  45. ↑ Expert Working Group on Climate-related Security Risk (August 2018). "Iraq: Climate-related Security Risk Assessment" (PDF). pp. 1–2.
  46. ↑ Younis, Nussaibah (2022-07-19). "Early warning: How Iraq can adapt to climate change". ECFR. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  47. ↑ "Iraq: Security Forces Fire on Protesters". Human Rights Watch. 2018-07-24. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  48. ↑ "Iraqis protest over power, water cuts amid heat wave". Reuters. 2021-07-02. Retrieved 2022-08-09.
  49. ↑ "Sustainable Solutions to Combat Climate Change in Iraq". reliefweb.int. 2023-04-03. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  50. ↑ "Stabilization | Iraq". U.S. Agency for International Development. 2023-10-03. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  51. ↑ "Peacebuilding Series: Climate Change in Iraq | Search for Common Ground". www.sfcg.org. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  52. ↑ Younis, Nussaibah (2022-07-19). "Early warning: How Iraq can adapt to climate change". ECFR. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  53. ↑ Taher, Noor (May 5, 2023). "Iraq: A Rapidly Changing Climate and Imperative for Cooperation".
  54. ↑ "In face of climate crisis, Iraq takes on methane pollution". UNEP. 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  55. ↑ "Iraq launches National Adaptation Plan process for climate change resilience". UN Environment. 2020-09-21. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  56. ↑ "FAO launches the SIDA funded project, Enhanced Climate Resilience of Vulnerable Agriculture Households in Southern Iraq [EN/AR]". reliefweb.int. 2022-12-16. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  57. ↑ "Sweden contributes USD 10.2 M to Iraq's agriculture sector in Southern Iraq to mitigate climate changes [EN/AR]". reliefweb.int. 2022-11-20. Retrieved 2023-11-07.

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from the USAID

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.