Eritrea, a small coastal nation situated along the Red Sea in the Horn of Africa, is one of the most vulnerable countries of the world to the adverse effects of climate change and increased climate variability has already been evidenced in the country. [1] [2]
Eritrea's CO2 emissions in 2020 were 6,242.49 thousand metric tons, showing a 1.02% increase from 2019. Fossil CO2 emissions in Eritrea were 684,140 tons in 2016. CO2 emissions increased by 4.79% over the previous year, representing an increase of 31,259 tons over 2015, when CO2 emissions were 652,881 tons. [3] [4]
| Year | Fossil CO2 Emissions ( tons ) | CO2 emisions change | CO2 emissions per capita | Population | Pop . change | Share of World's CO2 emissions |
| 2016 | 684,140 | 4.79% | 0.2 | 3,365,287 | 0.76% | 0.00% |
| 2015 | 652,881 | 1.00% | 0.2 | 3,340,006 | 0.50% | 0.00% |
| 2014 | 646,425 | 3.27% | 0.19 | 3,323,425 | 0.82% | 0.00% |
| 2013 | 625,969 | -0.02% | 0.19 | 3,296,367 | 1.35% | 0.00% |
| 2012 | 626,081 | 6.35% | 0.19 | 3,252,596 | 1.40% | 0.00% |
| 2011 | 588,706 | 16.82% | 0.18 | 3,207,570 | 1.90% | 0.00% |
| 2010 | 503,931 | 7.04% | 0.16 | 3,147,727 | 2.07% | 0.00% |
| 2009 | 470,807 | 4.52% | 0.15 | 3,083,888 | 2.60% | 0.00% |
| 2008 | 450,425 | -12.92% | 0.15 | 3,005,779 | 2.72% | 0.00% |
| 2007 | 517,249 | -2.10% | 0.18 | 2,926,168 | 1.60% | 0.00% |
| 2006 | 528,326 | -12.72% | 0.18 | 2,880,093 | 1.71% | 0.00% |
| 2005 | 605,323 | -12.00% | 0.21 | 2,831,732 | 2.48% | 0.00% |
| 2004 | 687,836 | -1.12% | 0.25 | 2,763,140 | 4.14% | 0.00% |
| 2003 | 695,598 | -3.08% | 0.26 | 2,653,390 | 4.16% | 0.00% |
| 2002 | 717,682 | -1.85% | 0.28 | 2,547,424 | 3.47% | 0.00% |
| 2001 | 731,240 | 9.70% | 0.3 | 2,461,927 | 2.89% | 0.00% |
| 2000 | 666,570 | -1.34% | 0.28 | 2,392,880 | 1.54% | 0.00% |
| 1999 | 675,620 | 6.25% | 0.29 | 2,356,477 | 1.45% | 0.00% |
| 1998 | 635,905 | -24.27% | 0.27 | 2,322,753 | 1.36% | 0.00% |
| 1997 | 839,751 | -5.16% | 0.37 | 2,291,561 | 1.21% | 0.00% |
| 1996 | 885,425 | 10.07% | 0.39 | 2,264,073 | 4.95% | 0.00% |
| 1995 | 804,439 | 8.98% | 0.37 | 2,157,220 | 5.62% | 0.00% |
| 1994 | 738,126 | 12.84% | 0.36 | 2,042,500 | 3.08% | 0.00% |
| 1993 | 654,162 | 40.83% | 0.33 | 1,981,419 | 3.14% | 0.00% |
| 1992 | 464,507 | 861.68% | 0.24 | 1,921,153 | -5.79% | 0.00% |
| 1991 | 48,302 | 1.06% | 0.02 | 2,039,220 | -5.15% | 0.00% |
| 1990 | 47,795 | 3.89% | 0.02 | 2,149,960 | 2.28% | 0.00% |
| 1989 | 46,007 | 1.00% | 0.02 | 2,102,131 | 2.47% | 0.00% |
| 1988 | 45,550 | 3.07% | 0.02 | 2,051,546 | 2.56% | 0.00% |
| 1987 | 44,193 | -10.20% | 0.02 | 2,000,355 | 2.60% | 0.00% |
| 1986 | 49,213 | 5.15% | 0.03 | 1,949,611 | 2.65% | 0.00% |
| 1985 | 46,804 | 6.92% | 0.02 | 1,899,243 | 2.68% | 0.00% |
| 1984 | 43,776 | -0.28% | 0.02 | 1,849,594 | 2.77% | 0.00% |
| 1983 | 43,900 | 2.33% | 0.02 | 1,799,814 | 2.79% | 0.00% |
| 1982 | 42,902 | 0.37% | 0.02 | 1,751,045 | 2.77% | 0.00% |
| 1981 | 42,744 | 0.49% | 0.03 | 1,703,789 | 2.76% | 0.00% |
| 1980 | 42,537 | -11.77% | 0.03 | 1,657,982 | 2.74% | 0.00% |
| 1979 | 48,214 | 12.58% | 0.03 | 1,613,829 | 2.71% | 0.00% |
| 1978 | 42,826 | 4.97% | 0.03 | 1,571,193 | 2.71% | 0.00% |
| 1977 | 40,797 | 2.56% | 0.03 | 1,529,802 | 2.69% | 0.00% |
| 1976 | 39,780 | 6.57% | 0.03 | 1,489,656 | 2.67% | 0.00% |
| 1975 | 37,327 | -12.81% | 0.03 | 1,450,867 | 2.66% | 0.00% |
| 1974 | 42,812 | 2.11% | 0.03 | 1,413,220 | 2.67% | 0.00% |
| 1973 | 41,927 | 2.63% | 0.03 | 1,376,516 | 2.66% | 0.00% |
| 1972 | 40,852 | -5.03% | 0.03 | 1,340,838 | 2.65% | 0.00% |
The climate of Eritrea exhibits a diverse range of conditions, characterized by hot and arid regions near the Red Sea, temperate climates in the highlands, and sub-humid conditions in isolated micro-catchment areas along the eastern escarpment. Approximately 71% of the country experiences hot to very hot weather, with an average annual temperature exceeding 27 °C. Another 24% of the nation is warm to mild weather, with mean temperatures hovering around 22 °C. [5] The remaining 5% of Eritrea's territory is of a cool climate, showcasing an average annual temperature below 19 °C. Rainfall distribution also varies significantly, with precipitation increasing as one moves from north to south. In the northwest lowlands, rainfall barely exceeds 200 mm annually, while the south-western lowlands receive more than 700 mm of rainfall per year. Overall, Eritrea is predominantly arid, with approximately 70% of its land area classified as such and average annual rainfall of less than 350 mm. [6] [7] [8] [9]
Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in temperature of approximately 1.7 °C, with an average rate of 0.37 °C per decade. Eastern Africa, including Eritrea, has witnessed a more frequent occurrence of extreme precipitation changes, such as droughts and heavy rainfall events, during the past 30–60 years. An analysis of data from 1912-2005 also indicates a decline in rainfall for the central and southern highlands, where rain-fed agriculture prevails as the dominant economic activity. [1] [2]
Current climate change projections suggest that the Anseba River's base flows and the shallow groundwater along the stream bank will be significantly impacted. As highlighted in the NAPA report, it is anticipated that rising temperatures and increasing rainfall variability will lead to a decline in overall groundwater supply and an elevated demand for crop water. [2] [10]
The escalating impacts of climate change, including droughts and frequent drought-related crises, have led to displacement and increased vulnerability among communities in Eritrea. This has been particularly observed in at-risk communities. [11] [12]
Over 70% of Eritrea’s population is reliant on agriculture, encompassing crop and livestock production, for their sustenance. Conversely, throughout most times of the year, the populace faces food insecurity due to the impacts of climate change and land degradation. Agriculture bears the brunt of capricious weather conditions and significant seasonal price fluctuations. [13] Consequently, domestic food production consistently falls short of the country's requirements, necessitating a dependence on commercial imports. In recent times, Eritrea has also experienced volatile fluctuations in livestock production. These variations are ascribed to both factors influenced by human activities and the altering climate patterns. Scarcities of pastures and water sources, primarily triggered by climate change and the deterioration of land quality, further impede the livestock sector of the nation. [1] Small-scale farmers play a dominant role in the agricultural sector, where they experience low agricultural productivity. These farmers are typically living in persistent poverty and heavily rely on rain-fed and traditional farming practices. As a result, these communities are exceedingly susceptible to the variability of climate change. [13]
Eritrea has implemented several policies and legal frameworks to contribute to both the adaptation and mitigation of climate change. The country has made significant strides in incorporating climate change considerations into its national development policy framework. [13] Eritrea has already taken proactive measures to integrate climate change mitigation issues into sectoral policies, such as through the Energy Development Framework and Strategy (EDFS). [1] In 2007, Eritrea launched its National Climate Change Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA) which built on ongoing efforts to address climate change in the country’s development policy framework. The NAPA focuses on strengthening adaptation to climate change in five priority sectors, namely agriculture, forestry, water, marine and coastal environment, and public health. [14]
Eritrea submitted its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the UNFCCC in 2018, committing to reduce CO2 emissions from fossil fuels by 12% by 2030 compared to 2010 levels. With additional support, emissions can be reduced by 38.5% by 2030. The NDC outlines concrete measures for implementation, including capacity building, technology transfer, financial support, and partnerships with regional and international agencies. Monitoring and evaluation tools are proposed for effective implementation of the NDC. [13]
In 2021, Eritrea submitted its First Biennial Update Report (BUR1) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [1] The country is also currently in the process of preparing its Third National Communication (TNC), Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA), and National Adaptation Plan (NAP) documents. [13]
Senegal is a coastal West African nation located 14 degrees north of the equator and 14 degrees west of the Prime Meridian. The country's total area is 196,190 km2 of which 192,000 km2 is land and 4,190 km2 is water.
Climate change is having major effects on the Chinese economy, society and the environment. China is the largest emitter of carbon dioxide, through an energy infrastructure heavily focused on coal. Other industries, such as a burgeoning construction industry and industrial manufacturing, contribute heavily to carbon emissions. However, like other developing countries, on a per-capita basis, China's carbon emissions are considerably less than countries like the United States. It has also been noted that higher-income countries have outsourced emissions-intensive industries to China. China is now the world's largest polluter and in 2023 recorded its hottest year on record with an average temperature of 10.7 C. On the basis of cumulative CO2 emissions measured from 1751 through to 2017, China is responsible for 13% globally and about half of the United States' cumulative emissions.
The Paris Agreement is an international treaty on climate change that was signed in 2016. The treaty covers climate change mitigation, adaptation, and finance. The Paris Agreement was negotiated by 196 parties at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference near Paris, France. As of February 2023, 195 members of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are parties to the agreement. Of the three UNFCCC member states which have not ratified the agreement, the only major emitter is Iran. The United States withdrew from the agreement in 2020, but rejoined in 2021.
Climate change has serious impacts on the water resources in Jordan. The country needs to prepare for the impacts of climate change. Water resources in Jordan are scarce. Besides the rapid population growth, the impacts of climate change are likely to further exacerbate the problem. Temperatures will increase and the total annual precipitation is likely to decrease, however with a fair share of uncertainty. Hence, existing and new activities with the objective to minimize the gap between water supply and demand contribute to adapt Jordan to tomorrow's climate. This might be accompanied by activities improving Jordan's capacity to monitor and project meteorological and hydrological data and assess its own vulnerability to climate change.
A National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) is a type of plan submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) by least developed countries, to describe the country's perception of its most "urgent and immediate needs to adapt to climate change". NAPAs are not supposed to include original research, but use existing information and include profiles of priority projects that are intended to address those needs that have been identified.
Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to the effects of climate change. Some sources even classify Africa as "the most vulnerable continent on Earth". Climate change and climate variability will likely reduce agricultural production, food security and water security. As a result, there will be negative consequences on people's lives and sustainable development in Africa.
Climate change in Luxembourg discusses the climate change issues in Luxembourg. Luxembourg is a territory of 998.4 miles. Of the total area of Luxembourg, 85.5% was agricultural land and land under forest – with around 51% for agriculture and 35% for forests. Changes in temperature and rainfall will have an impact on Luxembourg especially due to their high percentage of forestry.
Globally, Nepal is ranked fourth in terms of vulnerability to climate change. Floods spread across the foothills of the Himalayas and bring landslides, leaving tens of thousands of houses and vast areas of farmland and roads destroyed. In the 2020 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, it was judged to be the ninth hardest-hit nation by climate calamities during the period 1999 to 2018. Nepal is a least developed country, with 28.6 percent of the population living in multidimensional poverty. Analysis of trends from 1971 to 2014 by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) shows that the average annual maximum temperature has been increasing by 0.056 °C per year. Precipitation extremes are found to be increasing. A national-level survey on the perception-based survey on climate change reported that locals accurately perceived the shifts in temperature but their perceptions of precipitation change did not converge with the instrumental records. Data reveals that more than 80 percent of property loss due to disasters is attributable to climate hazards, particularly water-related events such as floods, landslides and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
The nationally determined contributions (NDCs) are commitments that countries make to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions as part of climate change mitigation. These commitments include the necessary policies and measures for achieving the global targets set out in the Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement has a long-term temperature goal which is to keep the rise in global surface temperature to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) above pre-industrial levels. The treaty also states that preferably the limit of the increase should only be 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). To achieve this temperature goal, greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced as soon as, and by as much as, possible. To stay below 1.5 °C of global warming, emissions need to be cut by roughly 50% by 2030. This figure takes into account each country's documented pledges or NDCs.
Climate change in Ghana is impacting the people in Ghana in several ways as the country sits at the intersection of three hydro-climatic zones. Changes in rainfall, weather conditions and sea-level rise will affect the salinity of coastal waters. This is expected to negatively affect both farming and fisheries. Low precipitation, drought and wild fires are also some major effects associated with climate change in Ghana.
Climate change in Tanzania is affecting the natural environment and residents of Tanzania. Temperatures in Tanzania are rising with a higher likelihood of intense rainfall events and of dry spells.
Climate change in Somalia refers to changes in the climate in Somalia and the subsequent response, adaption and mitigation strategies of the country. Climate models predict that the East Africa region is likely to experience both near-term alterations in climate such as warmer temperatures, changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme events, and decreased precipitation, as well as long-term shifts such as sea level rise.
Climate change in Senegal will have wide reaching impacts on many aspects of life in Senegal. Climate change will cause an increase in average temperatures over west Africa by between 1.5 and 4 °C by mid-century, relative to 1986–2005. Projections of rainfall indicate an overall decrease in rainfall and an increase in intense mega-storm events over the Sahel. The sea level is expected to rise faster in West Africa than the global average. Although Senegal is currently not a major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, it is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.
Climate change is posing an increasing threat to global socio-economic development and environmental sustainability. Developing countries with low adaptive capacity and high vulnerability to the phenomenon are disproportionately affected. Climate change in Kenya is increasingly impacting the lives of Kenya's citizens and the environment. Climate Change has led to more frequent extreme weather events like droughts which last longer than usual, irregular and unpredictable rainfall, flooding and increasing temperatures.
Climate change is predicted to lead to rising temperatures at a swifter rate in Cyprus than many other areas of the planet. Cyprus is an island nation geographically situated in the Middle East, with low levels of rainfall.
Climate change in South Africa is leading to increased temperatures and rainfall variability. Evidence shows that extreme weather events are becoming more prominent due to climate change. This is a critical concern for South Africans as climate change will affect the overall status and wellbeing of the country, for example with regards to water resources. Just like many other parts of the world, climate research showed that the real challenge in South Africa was more related to environmental issues rather than developmental ones. The most severe effect will be targeting the water supply, which has huge effects on the agriculture sector. Speedy environmental changes are resulting in clear effects on the community and environmental level in different ways and aspects, starting with air quality, to temperature and weather patterns, reaching out to food security and disease burden.
Climate change in Botswana refers to changes in the climate in Botswana and the subsequent response, adaptation and mitigation strategies of the country. It is expected to lead to increased intensity of droughts and increased frequencies this is due to shorter rainy seasons and fewer rainy days. Due to fluctuation on climate and weather the country may sometimes experience heavy destructive rains.
Climate change is the consequence of long-term alterations in the Earth's climate caused by the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). These gases can trap heat in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming and a heightened temperature on our planet. The activities carried out by humans, such as the utilization of fossil fuels, along with large-scale commercial agriculture and deforestation, are accountable for the release of these greenhouse gases. The escalating temperatures and escalating extreme heat conditions, uncertain and progressively unpredictable precipitation, and extreme weather provoke new challenges and exacerbate existing ones.
Lesotho is a country in southern Africa that is already experiencing the negative effects of climate change, including increased frequency of extreme weather, such as droughts, increased rates of soil erosion and desertification, and reduced soil fertility. Lesotho is a landlocked country that is particularly vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate variability and changes in water and food security, as well as adverse conditions to health, human settlements, and the energy sector.
Malawi is a land-locked country in southeastern Africa situated along the southernmost arm of the East African Rift-Valley System between latitudes 9°22’ and 17°03’ south of the equator, and longitudes 33°40’ and 35°55’ east of the Greenwich meridian. It shares borders with Tanzania in the north and northeast, Mozambique in the southwest, south, and east, and Zambia in the west. Malawi is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change as the vast majority of Malawians rely on small-scale, rain-fed agriculture, making them highly dependent on weather patterns. Climate change increasingly exacerbates droughts, flooding, and inconsistent rainfall—contributing to food insecurity and threatening to derail progress toward Malawi's goal of self-reliance.
