Climate change in Ghana

Last updated
This bar chart is a visual representation of the change in temperature in the past 100+ years. Each stripe represents the temperature averaged over a year. The average temperature from 1971 to 2000 serves as the boundary between blue and red colors. The color scale spans from +-2.6 standard deviations of the annual average temperatures recorded between the years specified in the file name. Temperature Bar Chart Africa-Ghana--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png
This bar chart is a visual representation of the change in temperature in the past 100+ years. Each stripe represents the temperature averaged over a year. The average temperature from 1971 to 2000 serves as the boundary between blue and red colors. The color scale spans from ±2.6 standard deviations of the annual average temperatures recorded between the years specified in the file name.

Climate change in Ghana is impacting the people in Ghana in several ways as the country sits at the intersection of three hydro-climatic zones. [1] Changes in rainfall, weather conditions and sea-level rise [2] will affect the salinity of coastal waters. This is expected to negatively affect both farming and fisheries. [3] Low precipitation, drought and wild fires are also some major effects associated with climate change in Ghana. [4]

Contents

The national economy stands to suffer from the impacts of climate change because of its dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, energy, and forestry. Moreover, access to freshwater is expected to become more challenging while reduced water supply will have a negative impact on hydropower, which provides 54% of the country's electricity capacity. [3] Additionally, Ghana will likely see more cases of malaria and cholera since changes in water conditions impact both. Stagnant water bodies which are formed as a result of some flooding occurrences, may support the breeding of more mosquitoes which will eventually cause the increase in the spread of malaria. [5]

In 2015, the government produced a document titled "Ghana's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution". [6] Following that, Ghana signed the Paris Climate Agreement in 2016. The Intended Nationally Determined Contribution after 2016 became the Nationally Determined Contributions commonly referred to as NDCs, which was reviewed in 2021. [7]

A 2023 report by the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service noted that Ghana "is vulnerable to rising sea levels, droughts, increasing temperatures, and unpredictable rainfall which negatively impacts infrastructure, hydropower production, food security, and coastal and agricultural livelihoods". [8]

Greenhouse gas emissions

CO2 emissions by sector, 2021 [9]

  Transport (46.96%)
  Electricity and heat producers (34.42%)
  Industry (11.73%)
  Residential (3.63%)
  Agriculture (1.14%)
  Fishing (1.14%)
  Commercial and public services (0.55%)
  Other energy industries (0.42%)

In 2021, Ghana's total CO2 emissions from fuel combustion in the energy sector reached 21.397 million tones, highlighting a significant increase of 332% in per-capita emissions since 2000. [10] Despite representing only 0.1% of global emissions from inflammable fuels, this rise is concerning, particularly in international efforts to mitigate climate change impacts. West Africa is among the smallest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions, but the nations "are already feeling the effects of the climate catastrophe disproportionately". [11]

The primary source of these emissions in Ghana was oil burning, which accounted for 66% of the total CO2 emissions from fuel burning. Sector-wise, transportation emerged as the largest contributor, responsible for 47% of the nation's energy-related CO2 emissions, followed by electricity and heat production at 34%. These figures underscore the urgent need for Ghana to transition towards more sustainable energy sources and improve the efficiency of its transportation and power sectors. [12]

Carbon dioxide (CO2) makes up the vast majority of greenhouse gas emissions from the sector, but smaller amounts of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are also emitted. These gases are released during the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, to produce electricity. [13]

Fossil fuel production

The Jubilee offshore oil field in the Western Region of Ghana began production in 2010, raising expectations for wealth creation in Ghana. [14] However, the infrastructure needed to support Ghana's oil industry (storage, shipping, processing) has necessitated the practice of flaring. "Long-term gas flaring at the Jubilee Field may be inevitable" without accelerated development of infrastructure and would produce about 1.5 million tons of CO2 annually (7 percent of Ghana's total national emissions). [15]

Ghana's petroleum sector has experienced significant growth, particularly since the discovery of oil in commercial quantities in the Jubilee fields in 2007. Average crude oil production capacity has been declining slightly over time, with an average 176,000 barrels per day in September 2021. [16]

Some of the major oil and gas activities are conducted by international oil companies such as Tullow Ghana, Vitol, Kosmos Energy, and ENI, among others. Their sub-contractors include Schlumberger, Baker Hughes, Weatherford, Ocean Rig, and Technip FMC, among others. The sector has been the subject of investment disputes, such as the one between the Springfield Group and ENI/Vitol. [16]

Upstream activities in the Ghanaian petroleum sector include the procurement and refining of crude oil by the nation's only petroleum refinery, Tema Oil Refinery (TOR). Downstream activities include the marketing and distribution of petroleum products by Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) and the pre-mixing of petroleum products for other industrial uses. OMCs operating in Ghana are mainly multinationals; however, the last decade has seen an increase in the establishment of several small and medium-sized local OMCs. [16]

The Ghana National Petroleum Council (GNPC) has the mandate to explore for oil within the nation's territory.  Ghana's oil and gas prospects are significant. Recent discoveries appear to indicate oil and gas resources stretch across the country's shoreline from Cape Three Points in the west to Keta in the east. The Volta Basin is also believed to hold oil and gas reserves onshore. The Government of Ghana, through GNPC, seeks to maximize the country's prospects in the oil and gas sector and extend the country's continental shelf to increase the sector's scope. [16]

The prices of petroleum products are regulated by an independent board. The nation consumes significant volumes of petroleum products, which are mainly imported. The petroleum products produced in Ghana are mainly exported. [16]

Climate change institutions

One of the few important climate change institutions in Ghana is the Center for Climate Change and Sustainability Studies. [17] The center is located in the University of Ghana and it is involved in conducting various research works and projects with regards to climate change in Ghana. It is also a multidisciplinary faculty which explores areas such as health, resource management, economics and renewable energy. All of these research areas they venture into are targeted towards capacity building in climate change and sustainable development. [17]

Impacts on the natural environment

Temperature and weather changes

Koppen-Geiger Map GHA present.svg
Köppen climate classification map for Ghana for 1980–2016
Koppen-Geiger Map GHA future.svg
2071–2100 map under the worst climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely [18] [19] [20]
Many parts of Accra flood during the rainy season, causing environmental crisis in Ghana Floods after rains in Accra.jpg
Many parts of Accra flood during the rainy season, causing environmental crisis in Ghana

Lake Volta, the largest artificial lake by surface area in the world, changed climate patterns in Ghana. [21]

The drier northern areas have warmed more rapidly than southern Ghana. Overall, Ghana has experienced a 1.0 °C increase in temperature since 1960. [15] Northern Ghana has only one rainy season, while southern Ghana has two, and annual rainfall is highly variable. Long-term trends for rainfall are challenging to predict. However, USDA's Forest Service concluded in 2011 that there was "no evidence that extreme rain events have either increased or decreased since 1960." [15]

However, when one compares the Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for 1980–2016 and the projected map for 2071–2100 predicted change in classification from "tropical, savannah" to "arid, steppe, hot" in some coastal areas. [22] "

Sea level rise

Available data also shows a sea level rise of 2.1 mm per year over the last 30 years, indicating a surge of 5.8 cm, 16.5 cm, and 34.5 cm by 2020, 2050, and 2080. [23] [24] Flooding affects approximately "45,000 Ghanaians every year, and half of Ghana's coastline is vulnerable to erosion and flooding as a result of sea-level rise". [25]

Water resources

Expected decreases in water in the primary river basins providing fresh water for the country, Volta River, Bia River, and Tano River, could increase challenges in getting access to clean drinking water. [3] The volume of water in the Volta Basin was predicted to have a 24% and 45% reduction in 2050 and 2100, respectively. [3] The continuous decrease in precipitation and increasing evaporation rate has the potential to cause political tension in the region as Burkina Faso plans to draw water from the Volta Basin.

Impacts on people

Economic impacts

Agriculture

Maize farmer in Tamaligu, Ghana, Northern Region Maize Farmer in Ghana (8202282261).jpg
Maize farmer in Tamaligu, Ghana, Northern Region

Forty-five percent of the workforce in Ghana depends on small-holder rain-fed agriculture. [3] Disruption due to erratic rainfall and other extreme weather will harm people's economic well-being. [3] Moreover, staple crops such as Cassava, Maize, and cocoa (the major cash crop of Ghana) are expected to see decreased production. [3] Based on a 20-year baseline climate observation, it is forecasted that maize and other cereal crop yields will reduce by 7% by 2050.

Moreover, the combination of deforestation and new dams that dried up rivers has affected agriculture and, in turn, brought migration to Accra, which increased poor-quality unplanned settlements in the path of potential flash floods. [26]

A 2024 World Bank report estimates that about two million Ghanaians are vulnerable to food insecurity. [27] Should any natural disaster occur, food availability will be significantly affected, particularly in the Northern region and the country's rural areas. [27]

Fisheries

Seafood makes up 40–60 percent of protein intake in Ghana. [3] Key species for the economy are expected to have worse reproduction cycles . [3] Reduction in fisheries production has stimulated importation of more $200million per year worth of seafood. [28] Climate change alone might endanger a vital food source and way of life for Ghana by reducing possible fish catches by 25% or more by 2050. [29]

Hydropower

Because 54% of the national generation capacity is hydropower, unpredictable rainfall is likely to add uncertainty to a power grid already experiencing frequent outages (known as dumsor). [3] Some estimates suggest that capacity could fall by as much as 50% for the Volta Basin. [3] Ghana experienced a reduction in GDP between 2012 and 2015 in partial response to a deficient supply of power. [3]

Health impacts

An increase in waterborne diseases such as cholera and mosquito-borne diseases like malaria is projected. [3] In Ghana, flood-exposed communities have been associated with cholera and non-cholera diarrheal disease outbreaks. [30] [31] [32] According to the World Bank, Ghana's health system is highly vulnerable to the changes in climate, "especially to illnesses like malaria and diarrhea disease ... health issues related to heat, air pollution, and infectious diseases are on the rise with the elderly, youth, and children being particularly vulnerable". [27] As climate change results in more severe and frequent flooding, water source contamination and the spread of waterborne diseases are expected to increase. Abu and Codjoe, in their study conducted in two flood-prone and low-income areas, namely James Town and Agbogbloshie within the Accra Metropolitan Area, revealed that households experience regular cholera outbreaks and a high prevalence of non-cholera diarrhea and other illnesses. These low-income communities also have a large percentage of children under 5 years old who may have weakened immune systems and be particularly vulnerable to environmental challenges. [33]

Mitigation and adaptation

Ghana signed the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016 and ratified it on 21 September 2016. The first national climate change adaptation strategy in Ghana was developed to be implemented between 2010 and 2020. [34] Adaptation seeks to lower the risks posed by the consequences of climate change. Adaptation measures may be planned or put in place spontaneously in response to local pressure, such as afforestation, land rotation, building climate-resilient structures, solar-powered infrastructure, etc. [35] The Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and Innovation published a policy framework in 2013. [36]

In 2015, Ghana developed a framework entitled "Ghana's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution" to outline a plan to reduce carbon emissions and to improve eternity of land use, transportation, and other economic and societal sectors. [6] This plan, after the Paris Agreement in 2016, became the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC).

Ghana is experiencing population growth, has a high poverty rate, and its economy is dependent on vulnerable industries like agriculture. Thus, it is a West African country with increased risk of climate vulnerability, including droughts and floods, hunger and disease, that increase human suffering, violence, displacement, and economic collapse in the region. [11]

Ghanaian President Nana Akufo-Addo, the President of Ghana stated, "Our hope depends on the actions we take today." [11] However, Ghana still needs to develop long-term contingency plans for climate change because decision-makers and local managers have an inadequate perception of the costs of dealing with such crises. [26] A 2022 report by the World Bank report noted that Ghana has slowed progress in its economic development and has not fully converted its natural wealth into sufficient infrastructure, human, and institutional capital for sustained growth, but taking a climate resilient and low-carbon pathway could turn challenges into opportunities. [25] With appropriate reforms and investments, it will be possible for Ghana to "deliver large economic and social benefits for its people". [37]

Adaptation

This section is an excerpt from Climate change adaptation in Ghana.[ edit ]

Ghana became a party to the UNFCCC in September 1995, and ratified the Paris Agreement in September 2016. [38] As a party to the Paris Agreement, Ghana is expected to develop a National Adaptation Plan, that outlines strategies the country is taking to adjust to the changing climatic conditions.

Climate change adaptation involves modifying or developing structure to help one live with the influence of actual or expected future climate. The goal of adaptation is to reduce the impacts of the harmful effects of climate change (like sea-level rise, more intense extreme weather events, or food insecurity). It also includes making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with climate change. [39]

Ghana's development—both human and economic—is susceptible to climate change. Around 45,000 Ghanaians are impacted by flooding annually on average, and half of the country's coastline is at risk of erosion and flooding due to sea level rise. Without immediate action, crop and labor productivity will be impacted by rising temperatures and heat stress, and infrastructure and structures will be harmed by more unpredictable rainfall patterns. Human capital and productivity will also be hampered by local air pollution, water insecurity, and land degradation. [40]

It is approximated that climate change will add to the human and economic toll of floods and droughts in Ghana, which will have direct impacts on key development areas like food security, water resource management, health, and economic growth. [41]

Against this backdrop, the government of Ghana and other International Development Partners, have set out approaches to determine vulnerability and adaptation priorities, and to join this knowledge into development and sectoral planning. [42]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Japan</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Japan related to climate change

Climate change is an urgent and significant issue affecting Japan. In recent years, the country has observed notable changes in its climate patterns, with rising temperatures serving as a prominent indicator of this phenomenon. As an archipelago situated in northeastern Asia, Japan is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its diverse geography and exposure to various weather systems. The nation experiences a broad range of climates, spanning from the frigid winters of Hokkaido to the subtropical climates of Okinawa. Changes in temperature patterns have the potential to disrupt ecosystems, impact agricultural productivity, modify water resources, and pose significant challenges to infrastructure and human settlements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate of Ghana</span>

The climate of Ghana is tropical. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry, the south-west corner of Ghana is hot and humid, and the north of Ghana is hot and dry. Ghana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, giving it a warm climate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the African continent related to climate change

Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to the effects of climate change. Some sources even classify Africa as "the most vulnerable continent on Earth". Climate change and climate variability will likely reduce agricultural production, food security and water security. As a result, there will be negative consequences on people's lives and sustainable development in Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Pakistan</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Pakistan related to climate change

Climate change in Pakistan is a major issue for the country. Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change. As with the changing climate in South Asia as a whole, the climate of Pakistan has changed over the past several decades, with significant impacts on the environment and people. In addition to increased heat, drought and extreme weather in parts of the country, the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas has impacted some of the important rivers of Pakistan. Between 1999 and 2018, Pakistan ranked 5th in the countries affected by extreme weather caused by climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Turkey</span> Impact of global warming on Turkey and adaptation to it

Droughts and heatwaves are the main hazards due to the climate of Turkey getting hotter. The temperature has risen by more than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), and there is more extreme weather.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Malaysia</span> Impact of global warming on the south-east Asian country and mitigating and adaptating to it

Climate change is having a considerable impact in Malaysia. Increasing temperatures are likely to greatly increase the number of heatwaves occurring annually. Variations in precipitation may increase the frequency of droughts and floods in various local areas. Sea level rise may inundate some coastal areas. These impacts are expected to have numerous environmental and socioeconomic effects, exacerbating existing environmental issues and reinforcing inequality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Iraq</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Iraq related to climate change

In Iraq, climate change has led to environmental impacts such as increasing temperatures, decreasing precipitation, land degradation, and water scarcity. Climate change poses numerous risks to human health, livelihoods, political stability, and the sustainable development of the nation. The combination of ecological factors, conflict, weak governance, and an impeded capacity to mitigate climate change, has made Iraq uniquely at risk to the negative effects of climate change, with the UN ranking them the 5th most vulnerable country to climate change. Rising temperatures, intensified droughts, declining precipitation, desertification, salinization, and the increasing prevalence of dust storms are challenges Iraq faces due in to the negative impacts of climate change. National and regional political instability and conflict have made it difficult to mitigate the effects of climate change, address transnational water management, and develop sustainably. Climate change has negatively impacted Iraq's population through loss of economic opportunity, food insecurity, water scarcity, and displacement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Algeria</span>

Climate change in Algeria has wide-reaching effects on the country. Algeria was not a significant contributor to climate change, but, like other countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, is expected to be among the most affected by climate change impacts. Because a large part of the country is in already hot and arid geographies, including part of the Sahara, already strong heat and water resource access challenges are expected to get worse. As early as 2014, scientists were attributing extreme heat waves to climate change in Algeria. Algeria was ranked 46th of countries in the 2020 Climate Change Performance Index.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Tanzania</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Tanzania related to climate change

Climate change in Tanzania is affecting the natural environment and residents of Tanzania. Temperatures in Tanzania are rising with a higher likelihood of intense rainfall events and of dry spells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Kenya</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Kenya related to climate change

Climate change is posing an increasing threat to global socioeconomic development and environmental sustainability. Developing countries with low adaptive capacity and high vulnerability to the phenomenon are disproportionately affected. Climate change in Kenya is increasingly impacting the lives of Kenya's citizens and the environment. Climate change has led to more frequent extreme weather events like droughts which last longer than usual, irregular and unpredictable rainfall, flooding and increasing temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Iran</span> Emissions, impacts and responses in Iran related to climate change

Iran is among the most vulnerable countries to climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Iran contributes to about 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), and is ranked 8th in greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) world wide and is ranked first in the MENA region due to its reliance on oil and natural gas. Climate change has led to reduced precipitation as well as increased temperatures, with Iran holding the hottest temperature recorded in Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the MENA region related to climate change

Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) refers to changes in the climate of the MENA region and the subsequent response, adaption and mitigation strategies of countries in the region. In 2018, the MENA region emitted 3.2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide and produced 8.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) despite making up only 6% of the global population. These emissions are mostly from the energy sector, an integral component of many Middle Eastern and North African economies due to the extensive oil and natural gas reserves that are found within the region. The region of Middle East is one of the most vulnerable to climate change. The impacts include increase in drought conditions, aridity, heatwaves and sea level rise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in South Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of South Africa related to climate change

Climate change in South Africa is leading to increased temperatures and rainfall variability. Evidence shows that extreme weather events are becoming more prominent due to climate change. This is a critical concern for South Africans as climate change will affect the overall status and wellbeing of the country, for example with regards to water resources. Just like many other parts of the world, climate research showed that the real challenge in South Africa was more related to environmental issues rather than developmental ones. The most severe effect will be targeting the water supply, which has huge effects on the agriculture sector. Speedy environmental changes are resulting in clear effects on the community and environmental level in different ways and aspects, starting with air quality, to temperature and weather patterns, reaching out to food security and disease burden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Israel</span>

Israel, like many other countries in the Middle East and North Africa, experiences adverse effects from climate change. Annual and mean temperatures are increasing in Israel, with mean temperature expected to increase between 1.6 and 1.8 °C by 2100. There is a reduction in annual precipitation and delayed winter rains. Israel is already experiencing droughts and water shortages. Heatwaves are other natural hazards expected to increase with climate change.

Ghana became a party to the UNFCCC in September 1995, and ratified the Paris Agreement in September 2016. As a party to the Paris Agreement, Ghana is expected to develop a National Adaptation Plan, that outlines strategies the country is taking to adjust to the changing climatic conditions.

Climate change in Botswana refers to changes in the climate in Botswana and the subsequent response, adaptation and mitigation strategies of the country. It is expected to lead to increased intensity of droughts and increased frequencies this is due to shorter rainy seasons and fewer rainy days. Due to fluctuation on climate and weather the country may sometimes experience heavy destructive rains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Zimbabwe</span>

Climate change impacts are occurring in Zimbabwe. Climate change is the result of the Earth's climate undergoing long-term changes due to the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming and a hotter planet. Human activities, such as the use of fossil fuels, as well as large-scale commercial agriculture and deforestation, are responsible for the release of these greenhouse gases. The country's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is very minimal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Lesotho</span>

Lesotho is a country in southern Africa that is already experiencing the negative effects of climate change, including increased frequency of extreme weather, such as droughts, increased rates of soil erosion and desertification, and reduced soil fertility. Lesotho is a landlocked country that is particularly vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate variability and changes in water and food security, as well as adverse conditions to health, human settlements, and the energy sector.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Eswatini</span>

Eswatini also known as Swaziland, a landlocked nation located in Southern Africa, is characterized by a subtropical climate that features wet and hot summers as well as cold and dry winters. The country has expressed concern regarding the impact of climate change on its existing social challenges, which include but are not limited to issues such as poverty, a high prevalence of HIV, and food insecurity. Furthermore, it is anticipated that climate change will significantly impede the country's development progress, by Vision 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Eritrea</span>

Eritrea, a small coastal nation situated along the Red Sea in the Horn of Africa, is one of the most vulnerable countries of the world to the adverse effects of climate change and increased climate variability has already been evidenced in the country.

References

  1. ↑ "Ghana at a glance". climatelinks.org. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  2. ↑ "Ghana's coastline, swallowed by the sea". UNESCO. 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2023-03-16.
  3. ↑ "World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal". climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  4. ↑ "Newsroom". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  5. 1 2 "NDC Registry (interim)". unfccc.int. Retrieved 24 November 2020.
  6. ↑ Dave, Radhika; Saint-Laurent, Carole; Murray, Lara; Antunes Daldegan, Gabriel; Brouwer, Rens; de Mattos Scaramuzza, Carlos Alberto; Raes, Leander; Simonit, Silvio; Catapan, Marisete (2019-06-27). Second Bonn Challenge progress report: application of the Barometer in 2018. IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature. doi:10.2305/iucn.ch.2019.06.en. ISBN   978-2-8317-1980-1.
  7. ↑ Tuebner, Robert (7 June 2023). "Ghana Climate Change Report" (PDF). USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  8. ↑ "Ghana - Countries & Regions". IEA. Retrieved 2024-05-08.
  9. ↑ "Ghana's Fifth National Greenhouse Gas Inventory" (PDF). unfccc.int. 17 July 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  10. 1 2 3 "How the Climate Change Crisis is Impacting Ghana". The Climate Reality Project. 28 June 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  11. ↑ "Ghana - Countries & Regions". IEA. Retrieved 2024-05-08.
  12. ↑ "Greenhouse gas emissions - Google Search". www.google.com. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  13. ↑ "Ghana - Jubilee FPSO Project - ESIA Summary" (PDF). afdb.org. 17 July 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  14. 1 2 3 "Ghana Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation". USAID Report prepared by the USDA Forest Service, International Programs. 30 June 2011. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Ghana - Oil and Gas". International Trade Administration. U.S. Department of Commerce. 2023-11-26. Retrieved 2024-07-21.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  16. 1 2 "Centre for Climate Change and Sustainability Studies". www.ug.edu.gh. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  17. ↑ Hausfather, Zeke; Peters, Glen (29 January 2020). "Emissions – the' business as usual' story is misleading". Nature. 577 (7792): 618–20. Bibcode:2020Natur.577..618H. doi: 10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3 . PMID   31996825.
  18. ↑ Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam; Koven, Charlie; Leshyk, Victor; Lawrence, David; Loranty, Michael M.; Mauritz, Marguerite; Olefeldt, David; Natali, Susan; Rodenhizer, Heidi; Salmon, Verity; Schädel, Christina; Strauss, Jens; Treat, Claire; Turetsky, Merritt (2022). "Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 47: 343–371. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 . Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement...
  19. ↑ Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022). "Explainer: IPCC Scenarios". Cosmos . Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023. "The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C.
  20. ↑ Andah, Winston E.I.; van de Giesen, Nick; Biney, Charles A. (2003). "Water, climate, food, and environment in the Volta Basin" (PDF). Project ADAPT: Adaptation strategies to changing environments. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  21. ↑ Bailey, Robert G. (2014-07-08). Ecosystem Geography: From Ecoregions to Sites. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   978-0-387-89516-1.
  22. ↑ Stark, Jeffrey; Terasawa, Katsuaki (November 2013). "Climate Change and Conflict in West African Cities" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  23. ↑ "Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana (fact sheet)" (PDF). January 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2017. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  24. 1 2 "Ghana Can Turn Climate Challenges into Opportunities for Resilient and Sustainable Growth, says new World Bank Group Report". The World Bank (Press release). 1 November 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  25. 1 2 Mensah, Edwin C.; Ziemnowicz, Christopher; Parnell, John A. (2021). "Crisis Perception, Experience, and Preparedness among Managers in Ghana". Journal of International Business and Economy. 22 (1): 1–28. doi: 10.51240/jibe.2021.1.1 . Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  26. 1 2 3 "New World Bank Report Calls for Strengthening Resilience of Ghana's Health System in Response to Climate Change". The Worls Bank. 30 April 2024. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  27. ↑ Ghana Country Development and Cooperative Strategy Climate Risk Screening (PDF). USAID. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
  28. ↑ "Climate Stories | Fisheries and Blue Economy". World Bank. Retrieved 2024-07-23.
  29. ↑ Ntajal, Joshua; Höllermann, Britta; Falkenberg, Timo; Kistemann, Thomas; Evers, Mariele (January 2022). "Water and Health Nexus—Land Use Dynamics, Flooding, and Water-Borne Diseases in the Odaw River Basin, Ghana". Water. 14 (3): 461. doi: 10.3390/w14030461 . ISSN   2073-4441.
  30. ↑ Larbi, Reuben Tete; Atiglo, D. Yaw; Peterson, Maame B.; Biney, Adriana A. E.; Dodoo, Naa Dodua; Dodoo, F. Nii-Amoo (2021). "Household food sources and diarrhoea incidence in poor urban communities, Accra Ghana". PLOS ONE. 16 (1): e0245466. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1645466L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245466 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   7842991 . PMID   33508014.
  31. ↑ Adams, Ellis Adjei; Nyantakyi-Frimpong, Hanson (January 2021). "Stressed, anxious, and sick from the floods: A photovoice study of climate extremes, differentiated vulnerabilities, and health in Old Fadama, Accra, Ghana". Health & Place. 67: 102500. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2020.102500. ISSN   1873-2054. PMID   33373811.
  32. ↑ Boafo, Yaw Agyeman; Ohemeng, Fidelia N. A.; Ayivor, Jesse; Ayitiah, Joseph Armah; Yirenya-Tawiah, Dzidzo; et al. (14 June 2024). "Unraveling diarrheal disease knowledge, understanding, and management practices among climate change vulnerable coastal communities in Ghana". Frontiers in Public Health. 12. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1352275 . ISSN   2296-2565. PMC   11211366 . PMID   38947353. Creative Commons by small.svg  This article incorporates textfrom this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  33. ↑ "National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy". UNEP/UNDP. November 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  34. ↑ "The Paris Agreement". United Nations Climate Change. Retrieved 24 November 2020.
  35. ↑ "Ghana National Climate Change Policy". Green Growth Knowledge Platform. January 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  36. ↑ "Ghana Taking on Climate Change: Ghana Country Climate Development Report (CCDR) video". The World Bank. 1 November 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  37. ↑ "Ghana's Adaptation Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (PDF). unfccc.int. Retrieved 2023-03-21.
  38. ↑ website, NASA's Global Climate Change. "Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation". Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Retrieved 2023-03-21.
  39. ↑ "Ghana Can Turn Climate Challenges into Opportunities for Resilient and Sustainable Growth, says new World Bank Group Report". World Bank. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  40. ↑ "Climate Change Adaptation in GHANA" (PDF).
  41. ↑ Ameyaw, Lord; Ettl, Gregory; Leissle, Kristy; Anim-Kwapong, Gilbert (2018-11-28). "Cocoa and Climate Change: Insights from Smallholder Cocoa Producers in Ghana Regarding Challenges in Implementing Climate Change Mitigation Strategies". Forests. 9 (12): 742. doi: 10.3390/f9120742 . ISSN   1999-4907.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.