Architecture of Ghana

Last updated

A drone footage of Accra central, Ghana.jpg
High-rise buildings in contemporary Accra, the capital
Pyramid House Ghaba.jpg
Pyramid House, Ghaba

The architecture of Ghana is influenced by a variety of historical, cultural, and environmental factors. Its architectural heritage consists of traditional architectural styles, monumental and symbolic architecture, and historic buildings and neighbourhoods. Architecture found across the country can be classified into indigenous architecture of the various ethnic groups, architecture of the colonial era, the tropical modernist style of the independence era, and architecture in contemporary times.

Contents

Traditional Ghanaian architecture is marked by the use of local materials such as mud, wood, grass and thatch, and is characterised by its adaptability to the local climate and environment. Indigenous structures, such as the Asante and Mole-Dagbani buildings were constructed using techniques like wattle and daub, with decorative bas-relief patterns, and features cultural symbols such as Adinkra motifs. With the arrival of the Europeans in the 15th century, architectural styles such as Gothic Revival were introduced, influencing the design of churches, and Neoclassical elements became prominent in government buildings and residential structures. This fusion of European influences with traditional indigenous construction methods brought about a change in the country's architectural landscape.

From the late 1950s, the architectural scene of Ghana saw the rise of Tropical Modernism, which combined modernist principles with the need for buildings adapted to the country's tropical climate. Characteristics of this style include the emphasis on natural ventilation, shading, and the use of locally sourced materials, with a focus on sustainability and functionality.

In contemporary Ghana, architecture has evolved to incorporate a blend of traditional and modern elements. Locally available materials, energy-efficient designs, and construction methods adapted to the tropical climate influence building practices.

Indigenous architecture

Mud room in northern Ghana.jpg
A room made of mud and roofed with dry grass.
Traditional building.jpg
Locally designed buildings

Traditional buildings in the northern, middle and southern zones vary in materials and techniques used for their construction. Common vernacular building materials that have been used over centuries include timber, bamboo, laterite, grass, thatch, and clay. [1] In Pre-colonial Ghana, traditional buildings were primarily made from materials such as mud, wood and thatch, chosen for their availability, affordability, and climate adaptability. [2] These materials were used to build durable structures, particularly in rural areas. The wattle and daub construction method was widely used by groups like the Ashanti Empire and dates back to about 6000 years ago. [3] This technique involved weaving wooden frames and filling them with a mixture of mud and straw, which created a sturdy wall structure.

In the Southern coastal regions, timber-frame construction with palm-thatched roofs is prevalent, while in Nzema, pile dwellings are built over water. The savanna regions of the north are characterised by dispersed homesteads and adobe compounds that blend with the landscape. [4] Historical influences, including European and Muslim penetration introduced elements like louvered jalousies and sun-dried bricks, which were assimilated into Ghana's traditional architecture over time. [4]

Murals
Wall Mural Ghana Library Authority Accra.jpg
An example of a wall mural, Ghana Library Authority Building
Kingbu school.jpg
Depiction of mural decorations on the wall of Kingbu School.

Mural decoration is another important feature of Ghanaian indigenous architecture. In the northern regions like Kassena, [5] it appears on nearly all buildings, both private and state-owned. In the southern regions, murals are primarily on chiefs' palaces and fetish houses. These decorations were not only for self-expression, but also served as a means of identifying and distinguishing individual structures. [6]

A major characteristic of Ghana's indigenous style is its reliance on locally sourced materials, environmental adaptability, integration with nature, and cultural significance of building practices. [2] Construction techniques and methods such as the timber framed, adobe construction, pile dwellings and rammed earth have been used for centuries, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas. [7] [8]

Ashanti Empire architecture

Front view of Kentikrono shrine, one of the traditional buildings of the Asante Kentikrono Shrine (2).jpg
Front view of Kentikrono shrine, one of the traditional buildings of the Asante

Traditional Ashanti buildings were primarily constructed using a wattle and daub method, [9] with a timber framework filled with clay and reinforced with bamboo, and had thatched roofs that were steeply pitched using raffia palm. [10] [11] This construction method utilised locally available materials, to adapt to the environment and resource availability.

Ashanti architecture is known for its 'fihankra' layout, where buildings are arranged around a central courtyard. [12] Typically, a compound would consist of four rectangular rooms surrounding the courtyard, with the inner corners connected by splayed screen walls. Three of these rooms were open to the courtyard, while the fourth was partially enclosed, serving functions such as ritual activities or housing shrines. [13]

Adrinka symbols
Adinkra motifs Rattray 1927.jpg
Adrinka symbols by Robert Sutherland Rattray
GhanaianEmbassyWashingtonDC.jpg
Adrinka symbols on the wall of the Embassy of Ghana in the United States

The walls of Ashanti buildings were plastered with mud, [14] embellished with elaborate murals and bas-relief decorations featuring geometric patterns, animal motifs, and representations of plants. [15] These designs often incorporated Adrinka symbols, each carrying specific meanings related to Ashanti beliefs and proverbs. [16] The upper walls displayed interlacing geometric designs, and was painted with white clay, while the lower sections which were painted in red laterite featured bodily modelled bas-reliefs polished to a dull shine. [10] This artistry serves both aesthetic and communicative purposes.

The Asante Traditional Buildings near Kumasi, recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, are the last surviving examples of this architectural style. [17] This collection comprises 13 buildings located across ten sites. Much of the empire's architecture was destroyed during British raids in the 19th century, leaving these buildings as the last authentic remains of the Ashanti period. [18]

Mole-Dagbani architecture

The spatial organisation of Mole-Dagbani settlements were hierarchical, with the chief's hut centrally positioned, [19] and surrounded by the dwellings of family members and other community structures. [20]

Symbols were important features in Mole-Dagbani architecture. Important structures, such as palaces, incorporated cultural symbols like the tortoise, lion, crocodile, and leopard, representing wisdom, strength, and fertility. [21]

Colonial architecture (15th – 20th century)

Colonial architecture in Ghana emerged with the arrival of European powers, who introduced Western architectural styles in the 15th century. [2] These merchants including the Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, and British, established trade posts, forts, and settlements along the Gold Coast. [22] [23] This period spanning until the early 20th century, [24] saw the introduction of European architectural styles that melded with local traditions, resulting in hybrid forms.

The construction of forts and castles was a main feature of early colonial architecture in Ghana. These forts and castles along Ghana's coast were constructed over a 300-year period between 1482 and 1786, [note 1] [25] : 7  and were occupied at different times by European traders from countries such as Portugal, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, and Britain. [26] Initially built to support the gold trade of European chartered companies, by the 17th and early 18th centuries, these structures later became central to the transatlantic slave trade. [27] They linked trading routes, and acted as important market places for the gold and slave trades. By the 19th century, the efficiency of the forts began to decline as their functionality waned, and some were abandoned entirely. [25] : 8–9 

The Castle of St George at Elmina, built in 1482 by the Portuguese, stands as the oldest European stone structure south of the Sahara, and was later expanded by the Dutch. This was followed by the construction of numerous forts, most of which were established in the 17th century when competition among European powers in the region intensified. [28]

Cape Coast Castle, constructed by the Swedes in 1653, is one of the largest trade forts in West Africa. The British later took control of the castle in 1664. Initially a trade hub for gold, wood and textiles, it later became a centre for the slave trade, with added dungeons to accommodate more captives. After the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, the castle was repurposed as an educational and administrative centre. [29] [30]

Architecturally, these forts were typically designed as large squares or rectangles, with outer components consisting of four bastions or towers located at the corners. The inner-sections featured two or three-story buildings, some with additional towers, and often included enclosures, courtyards, or spurs. These designs were periodically modified and expanded by successive European powers to suit new needs, and many forts bear traces of these adaptations. While some structures remain intact, others have fallen into ruins due to environmental pressures and lack of maintenance. [23] Most of these sites remained as architectural landmarks, and in 1979 designated as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.

In the 19th century, European missionaries introduced new building typologies, including churches, schools, and training colleges. This included the Abetifi Presbyterian Church and Akropong Presbyterian Training College, constructed with local labour under European supervision. [31] The latter is the second oldest higher educational institution in early modern West Africa. [32] These buildings often used rammed earth, stone nog, and brick.

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, colonial towns like Anomabo became centres of hybrid architecture, blending European and Ghanaian styles. [33] This hybridisation was particularly prominent in the homes of elite Africans, who used mimicry architecture to assert wealth, modernity, and resistance to colonial dominance. These homes often combined: European-inspired designs, such as Palladian symmetry, arches, and verandas, and local construction methods using materials like laterite, rammed earth, and wattle and daub. [33] [34]

Colonial administrators in the Gold Coast also constructed government offices, railways, and military barracks. Under Governor Gordon Guggisberg in the early 20th century, projects such as Takoradi Harbour, Korle-Bu Hospital, and Achimota School were established. [35] [36] These projects predominantly employed European architects and engineers. [37]

Post-independence

Following Ghana's independence in 1957, its first president, Kwame Nkrumah initiated various architectural projects. During this era, several monumental structures were commissioned. Black Star Square, also known as Independence Square, in Accra, is one of these projects. Designed by Ghanaian architect Victor Adegbite, the square was constructed on former colonial playing fields. It features the Independence Arch, consisting of three parabolic concrete arches that support a presidential platform, flanked by stands with a capacity of up to 30,000 spectators. The arch has been described as symbolising a "door of no return", signifying efforts to encourage the African diaspora to reconnect with their heritage and contribute to the country's development. [38]

Another project was the International Trade Fair in Accra. The centrepiece of the fair, the African Pavilion, featured a circular design with an aluminium roof, inspired by the royal umbrellas of the Akan chieftains and the baobab tree. [39] [40] [41]

Various public buildings such as the Ghana's National Museum and Job 600, educational institutions like the University of Ghana's Legon Campus, and infrastructure projects such as the Ghana International Trade Fair Centre were designed to incorporate modernist principles while integrating local cultural elements.

Around the same period, the first indigenous architectural firm in Ghana, Associated Consultants was founded by engineers and two Ghanaian architects, D.S.K. Kpodo-Tay and S.G.T Kofi, both graduates of KNUST with master's degree in architecture. Subsequently other indigenous firms followed, such as, Plan Architects, which was established by E.O Adjettey, a KNUST graduate with postgraduate training in urban planning from Edinburgh. [31]

Following the 1972 Aliens Compliance Order, which led to the departure of many expatriate architects, some remained in Ghana and collaborated with local professionals to foster architectural development in the country. [31]

Tropical Modernism

After Ghana gained independence, Tropical Modernism became a prominent architectural style in the country. It emerged as a response to the country's climatic conditions and socio-political context during the mid-20th century. This style combined modernist principles with designs suited to the tropical climate, incorporating features like brise soleil, wide overhangs, natural ventilation, and protective shade areas. [42] [43] [44]

One of the early examples of Tropical Modernism in Ghana is the Unity Hall at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), designed by Ghanaian architect John Owusu Addo. [45] The building integrated climate-responsive features such as cross ventilation and shading devices while reflecting modernist aesthetics. [46]

Foreign architects also contributed to the development of this style in Ghana. British architects Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, influenced several public and private structures in Accra. They emphasised on adapting international modernist designs to the local environment, and helped to shape the architectural landscape of this era. [47] [48] [49]

Beyond functionality, Ghanaian Tropical Modernism also incorporated cultural elements and symbols. Local motifs and traditional construction methods were often integrated into the facades and interiors of buildings. Public buildings such as the Ghana National Museum featured local materials and design motifs, for modernity and tradition. It also features faceted walls angled to allow for cross ventilation and a shallow dome made of reinforced concrete clad. [50]

Some Ghanaian architects adopted much of the architectural philosophy that "Form follows function", which defined much of the Ghanaian Tropical Modernist style, while other architects opted for a more expressive design philosophy, where form was influenced by, but not strictly bound to, function. [51]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Most sources state that the forts and castles were constructed between 1482 and 1786, but a report by COMMARK Trust and the African World Heritage Fund gives the range as 1480 to 1790.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ghana</span> Country in West Africa

Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It lies adjacent to the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing a border with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Togo in the east. Ghana covers an area of 239,567 km2 (92,497 sq mi), spanning diverse ecologies, from coastal savannas to tropical rainforests. With nearly 35 million inhabitants, Ghana is the second-most populous country in West Africa. The capital and largest city is Accra; other significant cities include Kumasi, Tamale, and Sekondi-Takoradi. In 1957 Ghana became the first colony in Sub-Saharan Africa to achieve sovereignty, under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah.

Yaa Asantewaa I was the Queen Mother of Ejisu in the Ashanti Empire, now part of modern-day Ghana. She was appointed by her brother Nana Akwasi Afrane Okese, the Edwesuhene, or ruler, of Edwesu. In 1900, she led the Ashanti war also known as the War of the Golden Stool, or the Yaa Asantewaa War of Independence, against the British Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gold Coast (British colony)</span> British colony from 1821 to 1957

The Gold Coast was a British Crown colony on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa from 1821 until its independence in 1957 as Ghana. The term Gold Coast is also often used to describe all of the four separate jurisdictions that were under the administration of the Governor of the Gold Coast. These were the Gold Coast itself, Ashanti, the Northern Territories protectorate and the British Togoland trust territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Modern architecture</span> 20th century movement and style

Modern architecture, also called modernist architecture, was an architectural movement and style that was prominent in the 20th century, between the earlier Art Deco and later postmodern movements. Modern architecture was based upon new and innovative technologies of construction ; the principle functionalism ; an embrace of minimalism; and a rejection of ornament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kumasi</span> City in Ashanti Region, Ghana

Kumasi is a city and the capital of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and the Ashanti Region of Ghana. It is the second largest city in the country, with a population of 443,981 as of the 2021 census. Kumasi is located in a rain forest region near Lake Bosomtwe and is located about 200 kilometres (120 mi) from Accra. The city experiences a tropical savanna climate, with two rainy reasons which range from minor to major. Major ethnic groups who lived in Kumasi are the Asante, Mole-Dagbon and Ewe. The current mayor of the metropolitan is Samuel Pyne.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kente cloth</span> Ghanaian textile

Kente refers to a Ghanaian textile made of hand-woven strips of silk and cotton. Historically the fabric was worn in a toga-like fashion among the Asante, Akan and Ewe people. According to Asante oral tradition, it originated from Bonwire in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. In modern day Ghana, the wearing of kente cloth has become widespread to commemorate special occasions, and kente brands led by master weavers are in high demand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape Coast Castle</span> Former fortified colonial trading post in Ghana

Cape Coast Castle is one of about forty "slave castles", or large commercial forts, built on the Gold Coast of West Africa by European traders. It was originally a Portuguese "feitoria" or trading post, established in 1555, which was named Cabo Corso.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Architecture of Singapore</span>

The architecture of Singapore displays a range of influences and styles from different places and periods. These range from the eclectic styles and hybrid forms of the colonial period to the tendency of more contemporary architecture to incorporate trends from around the world. In both aesthetic and technological terms, Singapore architecture may be divided into the more traditional pre-World War II colonial period, and the largely modern post-war and post-colonial period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prempeh College</span> All-males senior high school in Kumasi, Ghana

Prempeh College is a public secondary boarding school for boys located in Kumasi, the capital city of the Ashanti Region, Ghana. The school was founded in 1949 by the Asanteman traditional authority, the British Colonial Government, the Methodist Church Ghana and the Presbyterian Church of Ghana. The school is named after the King of Ashanti (Asantehene), Sir Osei Tutu Agyeman Prempeh II, who donated the land on which the school was built, and was modeled on Eton College in England.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asante Empire</span> Former Akan empire centred on present-day Ghana

The Asante Empire, also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of Ivory Coast and Togo. Due to the empire's military prowess, wealth, architecture, sophisticated hierarchy and culture, the Asante Empire has been extensively studied and has more historic records written by European, primarily British, authors than any other indigenous culture of sub-Saharan Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Architecture of Sri Lanka</span>

The architecture of Sri Lanka displays a rich variety of architectural forms and styles. Shaivism has had a significant influence on early Sri Lankan architecture, during the reign of King Ravana, then Buddhism has also had a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture, since it was introduced to the island in the 3rd century BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Indies architecture</span> Architectural style in Dutch East Indies

New Indies Style is a modern architectural style used in the Dutch East Indies between the late 19th century through pre-World War II 20th century. New Indies Style is basically early modern (western) architecture, which applies local architectural elements such as wide eaves or prominent roof as an attempt to conform with the tropical climate of Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Kumasi</span>

The history of Kumasi dates to the late 17th century when it emerged as the capital of the Ashanti Empire. Although various oral sources differ on the origin of Kumasi, majority agree it emerged as the capital of Ashanti under Osei Kofi Tutu I in the late 17th century. In the early 18th century, Kumasi was invaded and sacked by the Aowin but the invasion was curbed by Asantehene Opoku Ware I. 19th century written accounts by European visitors described the neatness and sophistication of the city. The population of Kumasi under the Ashanti Empire varies per source. The city was ransacked by the British Empire in 1874 during the Anglo-Ashanti Wars. A Civil war occurred within the 1880s which led to further decline of Kumasi. Another British invasion of the city occurred within 1895—1896 as Kumasi was left in ruins.

Gold Coast Euro-Africans were a historical demographic based in coastal urban settlements in colonial Ghana, that arose from unions between European men and African women from the late 15th century – the decade between 1471 and 1482, until the mid-20th century, circa 1957, when Ghana attained its independence. In this period, different geographic areas of the Gold Coast were politically controlled at various times by the Portuguese, Germans, Swedes, Danes, Dutch and the British. There are also records of merchants of other European nationalities such as the Spaniards, French, Italians and Irish, operating along the coast, in addition to American sailors and traders from New York, Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Euro-Africans were influential in intellectual, technocratic, artisanal, commercial and public life in general, actively participating in multiple fields of scholarly and civic importance. Scholars have referred to this Euro-African population of the Gold Coast as "mulattos", "mulatofoi" and "owulai" among other descriptions. The term, owula conveys contemporary notions of "gentlemanliness, learning and urbanity" or "a salaried big man" in the Ga language. The cross-cultural interactions between Europeans and Africans were mercantile-driven and an avenue to boost social capital for economic and political gain i.e. "wealth and power". The growth and development of Christianity during the colonial period also instituted motifs of modernity vis-à-vis Euro-African identity. This model created a spectrum of practices, ranging from a full celebration of native African customs to a total embrace and acculturation of European culture.

Alan Vaughan-Richards (1925–1989) was a British-Nigerian architect who was active in the post-colonial architecture industry of Nigeria. He engaged architects on the potential influence of African forms in architectural design through publication of the journal West Africa Builder and Architect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ghana–United Kingdom relations</span> Bilateral relations

Ghana–United Kingdom relations are the diplomatic, historical and trade relations between Ghana and the United Kingdom. Modern state Ghana-UK relations began when Ghana became independent from the UK in 1957 as the Dominion of Ghana.

Ghana was initially referred to as the Gold Coast. After attaining independence, the country's first sovereign government named the state after the Ghana Empire in modern Mauritania and Mali. Gold Coast was initially inhabited by different states, empires and ethnic groups before its colonization by the British Empire. The earliest known physical remains of the earliest man in Ghana were first discovered by archaeologists in a rock shelter at Kintampo during the 1960s. The remains were dated to be 5000 years old and it marked the period of transition to sedentism in Ghana. Early Ghanaians used Acheulean stone tools as hunter gatherers during the Early stone age. These stone tools evolved throughout the Middle and Late Stone Ages, during which some early Ghanaians inhabited caves.

John Owusu Addo is a Ghanaian architect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Elmina</span> History of the district capital

The documented history of Elmina begins in 1482 with an agreement between the Portuguese navigator Diogo de Azambuja and the ruler of Elmina, called Caramansa by the Portuguese. In it, the Portuguese were allowed to build the first European fortress in sub-Saharan Africa. For the next 150 years until the conquest by the Dutch in 1637, Elmina was the capital of the Portuguese bases on the Gold Coast, then for about 250 years the capital of the Dutch Empire in West Africa. Since the capture of the lease for the two fortresses of Elmina by the Ashanti in 1701, the city was also important to the Ashanti Empire. Until the 19th century, Elmina was one of the most populous cities in the Gold Coast, surpassing Accra and Kumasi. The trade in gold, slaves and palm oil brought the city into direct contact with Europe, North America, Brazil and, through the recruitment of soldiers, also with Southeast Asia. It was not until the takeover and destruction of the city by the British in 1873 that Elmina lost its prominent position in the Gold Coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tropical Modernism</span> Architectural style

Tropical Modernism, or Tropical Modern is a style of architecture that merges modernist architecture principles with tropical vernacular traditions, emerging in the mid-20th century. This movement responded to the unique climatic and cultural conditions of tropical regions, primarily in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Pacific Islands. Pioneering architects like Geoffrey Bawa in Sri Lanka, and Charles Correa in India balanced modern architectural techniques with traditional building practices of their respective regions. Tropical Modernism's legacy continues to influence contemporary architectural practices, especially in the quest for sustainable design solutions in tropical climates.

References

  1. ↑ Agyekum, Kissi & Danku 2020, pp. 3–4.
  2. 1 2 3 "Architecture in Ghana: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity". Green Views. 16 October 2024. Retrieved 9 December 2024.
  3. ↑ Shaffer, Gary D. (Spring 1993). "An Archaeomagnetic Study of a Wattle and Daub Building Collapse". Journal of Field Archaeology. 20 (1): 59–75. doi:10.2307/530354. JSTOR   530354.
  4. 1 2 Faculty of Architecture, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi (1978). "Traditional Forms of Architecture in Ghana". International Social Science Journal. Human Habitats: From Tradition to Modernism. 30 (3). UNESCO: 449–453. ISSN   0020-8701.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ "Painted earth architecture of the Kassena people". Field Study of the World. 17 December 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2024.
  6. ↑ Owusu, George W.A. (June 1994). "Mural Decoration on the Traditional Architecture of Northern Ghana" (PDF). Journal of the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. 14 (2): 132.
  7. ↑ "Vernacular Architecture: Ghana". Rethinking The Future. 22 October 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2024.
  8. ↑ Agyekum, Kissi & Danku 2020, pp. 4–6.
  9. ↑ "Discover the History of Asante Traditional Buildings, Ghana, on Google Arts & Culture". World Monuments Fund. 31 January 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  10. 1 2 "Asante Kingdom Sites of Ghana". WorldAtlas. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
  11. ↑ "Architecture of the Asante". Google Arts & Culture. World Monuments Fund. Retrieved 22 December 2024.
  12. ↑ Jectey-Nyarko, Mantey (July 2020). "Kaira Looro Architecture Competition: Emergency Operations Centre". Fihankra: The Concept of Communality and Security in Indigenous Asante Architecture. Independently published. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
  13. ↑ "Asante Traditional Buildings". Ghana Museums and Monuments Board. Retrieved 22 December 2024.
  14. ↑ Asante Traditional Buildings (PDF). World Heritage (2nd ed.). Ghana Museums and Monuments Board. 2021. p. 12. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  15. ↑ "Asante Traditional Buildings: Preserving Ghana's cultural heritage". Ghana Remembers. Retrieved 22 December 2024.
  16. ↑ Edwards, Amie (March 2023). "African Architecture and Identity: The Nineteenth Century Asante Palace of Kumase, Ghana". School of Architecture Symposia: 62–64. doi:10.35090/gatech/5978 . Retrieved 12 December 2024.
  17. ↑ "Asante Traditional Buildings, UNESCO, Amansie Central, Ghana" . Retrieved 22 December 2024.
  18. ↑ Strautmane, Edite (5 May 2023). "Asante Traditional Buildings". GhanaTRVL. Retrieved 27 December 2024.
  19. ↑ "Mole-Dagbon people". 101 Last Tribes. Retrieved 26 December 2024.
  20. ↑ Julian Mireri (15 April 2022). "Mole-Dagbon tribe: history, food, dance, languages, weapons, facts" . Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  21. ↑ Abdulai, Olivier Zakaria; Glikpoe, Noble Jesse (2023). "Cultural Significance of Some Symbols in Four Dagbon Palaces". International Journal of Recent Research in Social Sciences and Humanities (IJRRSSH). 10 (4): 143–153. doi:10.5281/zenodo.10078718. ISSN   2349-7831.
  22. ↑ "Castles, Factories, and Forts". Slavery and Remembrance. Retrieved 25 December 2024.
  23. 1 2 "Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions". UNESCO. Retrieved 17 December 2024.
  24. ↑ Ernest Boateng, John Fage. "Ghana – Colonialism, Independence, Gold Coast" . Retrieved 27 December 2024.
  25. 1 2 COMMARK Trust and African World Heritage Fund (2015). Forts & Castles of Ghana: Situational Analysis, Report 4 (Report). African World Heritage Fund.
  26. ↑ "Ghana's Historic Coastal Forts And Castles". WorldAtlas. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  27. ↑ "Forts and Castles in Ghana". Visit Ghana. Retrieved 18 December 2024.
  28. ↑ "Elmina Castle". everycastle. Retrieved 26 December 2024.
  29. ↑ "Cape Coast Castle". Slavery and Remembrance. Retrieved 28 December 2024.
  30. ↑ "Visit Ghana – Cape Coast Castle". Visit Ghana. Retrieved 28 December 2024.
  31. 1 2 3 Larbi, Samuel Opare (10 October 2020). "Architectural History of Ghana" . Retrieved 28 December 2024.
  32. ↑ "Presby - PTC COLLEGE OF EDUCATION". Presby. Archived from the original on 5 June 2018.
  33. 1 2 Micots, Courtnay (2015). "Status and Mimicry: African Colonial Period Architecture in Coastal Ghana". The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 74 (1): 41–43. doi:10.1525/jsah.2015.74.1.41.
  34. ↑ Micots, Courtnay (2020). African Coastal Elite Architecture: Cultural Authentication during the Colonial Period in Anomabo, Ghana (thesis). University of Florida. Retrieved 28 December 2024.
  35. ↑ Sarkodie, Alex. "Governor Frederick Guggisberg, His Second Coming". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 29 December 2024.
  36. ↑ Abbou, Tahar (2019). The Ten Year Plan in the Gold Coast . Retrieved 29 December 2024.
  37. ↑ "On (Un)formalisation: The Regulation of Architecture in Ghana" . Retrieved 26 December 2024.
  38. ↑ Wainwright, Oliver (26 February 2024). "Post-colonial party pads! The architects who got Ghana back in the groove". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 December 2024.
  39. ↑ Stanek, Łukasz. "Architects from Socialist Countries in Ghana (1957-67): Modern Architecture and Mondialisation". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 74 (4): 416–442. doi:10.1525/jsah.2015.74.4.416. ISSN   0037-9808.
  40. ↑ "Accra's International Trade Fair Embodies Ghana's Complex Legacy of Pan-African Modernism". Failed Architecture. 27 January 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
  41. ↑ "Tropical Modernism: Ghana's architecture and independence". 23 March 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
  42. ↑ Winterhalter 2017, pp. 43–49.
  43. ↑ Olivia Emily (5 March 2024). "Tropical Modernism: How To Incorporate This V&A Exhibition Into Your Interiors" . Retrieved 30 December 2024.
  44. ↑ "What is Tropical Modernism?" . Retrieved 28 December 2024.
  45. ↑ "Meet the Ghanaian architect who designed KNUST Unity Hall and Cedi House". GhanaWeb. 13 July 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2024.
  46. ↑ Kwabi, Prince Charles (15 December 2023). "Tropical Modern Architect: Prof. John Owusu Addo". Docomomo Journal (69): 29–34. doi: 10.52200/docomomo.69.03 . ISSN   2773-1634.
  47. ↑ Jackson, Iain; Holland, Jessica (2016). The Architecture of Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew: Twentieth Century Architecture, Pioneer Modernism and the Tropics. doi:10.4324/9781315612492. ISBN   978-1-317-04486-4.
  48. ↑ "MAXWELL FRY (1899-1987) AND JANE DREW (1911-96)". The Commonwealth Heritage Forum. 9 December 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2024.
  49. ↑ Liscombe, Rhodri Windsor (2006). "Modernism in Late Imperial British West Africa: The Work of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, 1946-56". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 65 (2). University of California Press: 188–215. doi:10.2307/25068264. JSTOR   25068264.
  50. ↑ Mohieldin Gamal (26 November 2024). "Two African National Museums: National Identity Reflected in Modernist Design". Arch Daily. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
  51. ↑ Journal, D. (2016). "Adaptive Reuse: The Modern Movement Towards the Future: 14th International docomomo Conference". Docomomo Journal. 55. Docomomo International: 414–419.

Bibliography

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.