Music of Africa

Last updated

Given the vastness of the African continent, its music is diverse, with regions and nations having many distinct musical traditions. African music includes the genres makwaya, highlife, mbube, township music, jùjú, fuji, jaiva, afrobeat, afrofusion, mbalax, Congolese rumba, soukous, ndombolo, makossa, kizomba, taarab and others. [1] African music also uses a large variety of instruments from all across the continent. The music and dance of the African diaspora, formed to varying degrees on African musical traditions, include American music like Dixieland jazz, blues, jazz, and many Caribbean genres, such as calypso (see kaiso) and soca. Latin American music genres such as cumbia, salsa music, son cubano, rumba, conga, bomba, samba and zouk were founded on the music of enslaved Africans, and have in turn influenced African popular music. [1] [2]

Contents

Like the music of Asia, India and the Middle East, it is a highly rhythmic music. The complex rhythmic patterns often involve one rhythm played against another to create a polyrhythm. The most common polyrhythm plays three beats on top of two, like a triplet played against straight notes. Sub-Saharan African music traditions frequently rely on percussion instruments of many varieties, including xylophones, djembes, drums, and tone-producing instruments such as the mbira or "thumb piano." [2] [3]

Another distinguishing form of African music is its call-and-response style: one voice or instrument plays a short melodic phrase, and that phrase is echoed by another voice or instrument. The call-and-response nature extends to the rhythm, where one drum will play a rhythmic pattern, echoed by another drum playing the same pattern. African music is also highly improvised. A core rhythmic pattern is typically played, with drummers then improvising new patterns over the static original patterns.

Traditional music in most of the continent is passed down through oral tradition. There are subtle differences in pitch and intonation that do not easily translate to Western notation. African music most closely adheres to Western tetratonic (four-note), pentatonic (five-note), hexatonic (six-note), and heptatonic (seven-note) scales. Harmonization of the melody is accomplished by singing in parallel thirds, fourths, or fifths.

Music is an integral part of communal life in Africa. [4] African music is made for both public enjoyment and public participation, and it is this social bonding over music that informed Christopher Small's idea of musicking . [5] In Africa, music is used as an avenue for social commentary and moralism. Types include work songs, love songs, lullabies, boasting songs, praise songs, narrative songs, and satirical songs. [6] Music is also important to religion, where rituals and religious ceremonies use music to pass down stories from generation to generation as well as to sing and dance to. [7]

Music by regions

North Africa and the Horn of Africa

Umm Kulthum Umm Kulthum 1969.jpg
Umm Kulthum

North Africa is the seat of ancient Egypt and Carthage, civilizations with strong ties to the ancient Near East and which influenced the ancient Greek and Roman cultures. Eventually, Egypt fell under Persian rule followed by Greek and Roman rule, while Carthage was later ruled by Romans and Vandals. North Africa was later conquered by the Arabs, who established the region as the Maghreb of the Ar Africa (sky-blue and dark green region on map), [8] its music has close ties with Middle Eastern music and utilizes similar melodic modes (maqamat). [9] North African music has a considerable range, from the music of ancient Egypt to the Berber and the Tuareg music of the desert nomads. The region's art music has for centuries followed the outline of Arabic and Andalusian classical music: its popular contemporary genres include the Algerian Raï.

Aar Maanta performing with his band at Pier Scheveningen Strandweg in The Hague, Netherlands Aar maanta.jpg
Aar Maanta performing with his band at Pier Scheveningen Strandweg in The Hague, Netherlands

With these may be grouped the music of Sudan and of the Horn of Africa, including the music of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. Somali music is typically pentatonic, using five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. [8] The music of the Ethiopian highlands uses a fundamental modal system called qenet , of which there are four main modes: tezeta, bati, ambassel , and anchihoy. [10] Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor. [11] Some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence. [10]

West, Central, Southeast and South Africa

The ethnomusicological pioneer Arthur Morris Jones (1889–1980) observed that the shared rhythmic principles of Bantu African music traditions constitute one main system. [12] Similarly, master drummer and scholar C. K. Ladzekpo affirms the "profound homogeneity" of Bantu African rhythmic principles. [13]

African traditional music is frequently functional in nature. Performances may be long and often involve the participation of the audience. [14] There are, for example, specialized work songs, songs accompanying childbirth, marriage, hunting and political activities, music to ward off evil spirits and to pay respects to good spirits, the dead and the ancestors. None of this is performed outside its intended social context and much of it is associated with a particular dance. Some of it, performed by professional musicians, is sacral music or ceremonial and courtly music performed at royal courts.

Musicologically, Sub-Saharan Africa may be divided into four regions: [12]

Southern, Central and West Africa are similarly in the broad Sub-Saharan musical tradition. They also have several ancillary influences, from the Muslim regions of Africa, and in modern times, the Americas and Western Europe.

Azande song from the Congo performed with xylophone.

Afrobeat, juju, fuji, highlife, makossa, and kizomba are performed in West Africa. West African music has regional variations, with Muslim regions incorporating elements of Islamic music and non-Muslim regions more influenced by indigenous traditions, according to the historian Sylviane Diouf and ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik. [15] According to Diouf, traditional Muslim West African Music incorporates elements of the Islamic call to prayer (originating from Bilal ibn Rabah, an Abyssinian African Muslim in the early 7th century), including lyrics praising God, melody, note changes, "words that seem to quiver and shake" in the vocal chords, dramatic changes in musical scales, and nasal intonation. According to Kubik, the vocal style of Muslim West African singers "using melisma, wavy intonation, and so forth is a heritage of that large region of West Africa that had been in contact with the Arabic-Islamic world of the Maghreb since the seventh and eighth centuries." In terms of instrumentation, Kubik notes that stringed instruments (including ancestors of the banjo) were traditionally favored by Muslim West Africans, while drumming was traditionally favored by non-Muslim West Africans. [15]

Musical instruments

Algerian musician Abderrahmane Abdelli playing the mandole Abderrahmane Abdelli.jpg
Algerian musician Abderrahmane Abdelli playing the mandole

Besides vocalisation, which uses various techniques such as complex hard melisma and yodel, a wide array of musical instruments are also used. African musical instruments include a wide range of drums, slit gongs, rattles and double bells, different types of harps, and harp-like instruments such as the kora and the ngoni, as well as fiddles, many kinds of xylophone and lamellophone such as the mbira, and different types of wind instrument like flutes and trumpets. Additionally, string instruments are also used, with the lute-like oud and Ngoni serving as musical accompaniment in some areas.草泥马


There are five groups of Sub-Saharan African musical instruments: membranophones, chordophones, aerophones, idiophones, and percussion. Membranophones are the drums, including kettles, clay pots, and barrels. Chordophones are stringed instruments like harps and fiddles. Aerophones are another name for wind instruments. These can include flutes and trumpets, similar to the instruments one hears in American music. In Northern Nigeria, Niger Republic and Northern Cameroon, Algaita-a double reed instrument is very common for festive events and seasons. [16]

Idiophones are rattles and shakers, while percussion can be sounds like foot-stomping and hand-clapping. [17] Many of the wooden instruments have shapes or pictures carved out into them to represent ancestry. Some are decorated with feathers or beads. [17]

Drums used in African traditional music include talking drums, bougarabou and djembe in West Africa, water drums in Central and West Africa, and the different types of ngoma drums (or engoma) in Central and Southern Africa. Other percussion instruments include many rattles and shakers, such as the kosika (kashaka), rain stick, bells and wood sticks. Also, Africa has many other types of drums, and many flutes and stringed and wind instruments.

The playing of polyrhythms is one of the most universal characteristics of Sub-Saharan music, in contrast to polyphony in Western music. Several uniquely designed instruments have evolved there over time to facilitate the playing of simultaneous contrasting rhythms. The mbira, kalimba, Kora, ngoni and dousn'gouni are examples of these instruments which organize notes not in the usual single linear order from bass to treble, but in two separated rank arrays which allows additional ease in playing cross rhythms. The continuing influence of this principle can be seen in the 20th century American instruments the gravi-kora and gravikord which are new modern examples.

Relationship to language

Many languages spoken in Africa are tonal languages, leading to a close connection between music and language in some local cultures. These particular communities use vocal sounds and movements with their music as well. In singing, the tonal pattern or the text puts some constraints on the melodic patterns. On the other hand, in instrumental music a native speaker of a language can often perceive a text or texts in the music. This effect also forms the basis of drum languages (talking drums). [18]

Influences on African music

Traditional drummers in Ghana Drumming (7250728078).jpg
Traditional drummers in Ghana

Historically, several factors have influenced the traditional music of Africa. The music has been influenced by language, the environment, a variety of cultures, politics, and population movement, all of which are intermingled. Each African group evolved in a different area of the continent, which means that they ate different foods, faced different weather conditions, and came in contact with different groups than other societies did. Each group moved at different rates and to different places than others, and thus each was influenced by different people and circumstances. Furthermore, each society did not necessarily operate under the same government, which also significantly influenced their music styles. [19]

Influence on North American music

African music has been a major factor in the shaping of what we know today as Dixieland, the blues, and jazz. These styles have all borrowed from African rhythms and sounds, brought over the Atlantic Ocean by enslaved Africans. African music in Sub-Saharan Africa is mostly upbeat polyrhythmic and joyful, whereas the blues should be viewed as an aesthetic development resulting from the conditions of slavery in the new world. [20] The blues has likely evolved as a fusion of an African blue note scale with European twelve tone musical instruments. [21] The musical traditions of the Irish and Scottish settlers merged with African-American musical elements to become old-time and bluegrass, among other genres.

Steve Winwood's progressive rock/jazz rock band Traffic often used West African rhythms Traffic 1973.jpg
Steve Winwood's progressive rock/jazz rock band Traffic often used West African rhythms

On his album Graceland , the American folk musician Paul Simon employs South African bands, rhythms and melodies as a musical backdrop for his own lyrics; especially Miriam Makeba, Ladysmith Black Mambazo and Ray Phiri. [22] In the early 1970s, Remi Kabaka, an Afro-rock avant-garde drummer, laid the initial drum patterns that created the Afro-rock sounds in bands such as Ginger Baker's Airforce, The Rolling Stones, and Steve Winwood's Traffic. He continued to work with Winwood, Paul McCartney, and Mick Jagger throughout the decade. [23]

Certain Sub-Saharan African musical traditions also had a significant influence on such works as Disney's The Lion King and The Lion King II: Simba's Pride , which blend traditional African music with Western music. Songs such as " The Lion Sleeps Tonight " " Circle of Life " and " He Lives in You " combine Zulu and English lyrics, as well as traditional African styles of music such as South African isicathamiya and mbube with more modern western styles. [24] Additionally, the Disney film incorporates numerous words from the Bantu Swahili language. The phrase hakuna matata, for example, is an actual Swahili phrase that does in fact mean "no worries". Characters such as Simba, Kovu, and Zira are also Swahili words, meaning "lion", "scar", and "hate", respectively. [25] [26]

Miriam Makeba, Hugh Masekela and Babatunde Olatunji were among the earliest African performing artists to develop sizable fan bases in the United States. Non-commercial African-American radio stations promoted African music as part of their cultural and political missions in the 1960s and 1970s. African music also found eager audiences at Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and appealed particularly to activists in the civil rights and Black Power movements. [27]

Afropop

Miriam Makeba during a performance Miriam Makeba 2011.jpg
Miriam Makeba during a performance
Angham, pop star nGm mHmd `ly slymn.jpg
Angham, pop star

African popular music commonly referred to as African pop or afro-pop like African traditional music is vast and varied. [28] [29] Most contemporary genres of African popular music build on cross-pollination with western popular music. Many genres of popular music, including blues, jazz and rumba, derive to varying degrees from musical traditions from Africa, taken to the Americas by enslaved Africans. These rhythms and sounds have subsequently been adapted by newer genres like rock, soul music, and rhythm and blues. Similarly, African popular music has adopted elements, particularly the musical instruments and recording studio techniques of western music. [30]

In 1933, Solomon Linda's Original Evening Birds vocal group was formed by Solomon Linda. Linda was illiterate however created songs during his childhood whilst guarding cattle. Solomon Linda's Original Evening Birds' most internationally acclaimed hit released in 1939, "Mbube" was the first African record to sell over 100,000 copies. [31] One of the most important 20th century singers of South African popular music was Miriam Makeba, who played a key-role, in the 60s, in drawing global audience's attention to African music and its meaning. Zenzile Miriam Makeba was said to have been one of the most influential and popular musicians of Africa, beginning in the 1950s. She was a part of three bands, including one all-woman band and two others. She performed all types of jazz music, traditional African music, and music that was popular in Western Africa at the time. Miriam played a majority of her music in the form of "mbube", which was "a style of vocal harmony which drew on American jazz, ragtime, and Anglican church hymns, as well as indigenous styles of music." After she moved to the U.S., problems with Makeba's passport occurred and she had to stay in America, it was said that she put an American twist on most of her African music. She had a very diverse scale of her vocal range and could hit almost any note. [32] [ circular reference ] "The Empress of African Music" died at the age of 76. [33]

In West Africa, Fela Kuti and Tony Allen performed Afrobeat music. [34] Femi Kuti and Seun Kuti followed their father Fela Kuti. [35] The Afro-Euro hybrid style, the Cuban son, has had an influence on certain popular music in Africa. Some of the first guitar bands on the continent played covers of Cuban songs. [36] The early guitar-based bands from the Congo called their music rumba (although it was son rather than rumba-based). The Congolese style eventually evolved into what became known as soukous. In 1972, Cameroonian songwriter and saxophonist Manu Dibango's, internationally innumerably sampled " Soul Makossa " was released. "Soul Makossa" is the most sampled African record, in history. [37]

The 2010 FIFA World Cup afro-fusion and soca theme-song, " Waka Waka (This Time for Africa) " featuring Shakira and Freshlyground sampled the makossa presumably soldier-tribute, melody Zamina mina (Zangaléwa) by Golden Sounds. [38] [39]

Kalpop is a music genre that originated in the Klassikan royal communities under Klassik Nation [40] record label. Kalpop is a genre of Klassikan, African, lingual (multicultured), and popular music that originated in its modern form during the mid-1990s in Kenya and later spread to the United States and the United Kingdom. Kalpop music has found a home to a growing fan base and with a number of locally established as well as emerging Kalpop bands (there are over thirteen active local Kalpop bands in Nairobi alone) further cementing this genre by engaging in different as well as mutually organised Kalpop themed events. [41] DON SANTO, [42] [43] Badman Killa, Blessed Paul, [44] Cash B, Jay Nuclear, Rekless, G-Youts (Washu B and Nicki Mulla), Sleek Whizz, Chizei, are among the many artists playing Kalpop music in Kenya. [41]

Music industry

For African artists, concerts were one of the few ways to earn in the industry. Piracy and changing consumer behavior are behind declining sales of records. Enforcement of copyright law remains weak in Africa. MusikBi is the first legal music download website in Africa. It does not offer streaming and is limited by internet speeds in Africa. [45] Some African countries, including Kenya, Gambia and South Africa, have seen protest over perceived excessive airtime given to American music. In Zimbabwe 75% of airtime has to be given to local music. Protective actions have seen the growth of new genres like Urban Grooves emerge in Zimbabwe. [46] In 2016 Sony Music launched in Africa by opening an office in Nigeria. Traditionally services of western major international studios have not been available in Africa, the local demand for their music being met through piracy. [47]

SInce 2014, the festival Visa for Music has been held annually with growing success in Morocco, presenting musical artists with roots in Africa through showcases, music videos and marketing for professionals from the creative industries worldwide. [48]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Funk</span> 1960s music genre

Funk is a music genre that originated in African-American communities in the mid-1960s when musicians created a rhythmic, danceable new form of music through a mixture of various music genres that were popular among African-Americans in the mid-20th century. It deemphasizes melody and chord progressions and focuses on a strong rhythmic groove of a bassline played by an electric bassist and a drum part played by a percussionist, often at slower tempos than other popular music. Funk typically consists of a complex percussive groove with rhythm instruments playing interlocking grooves that create a "hypnotic" and "danceable" feel. It uses the same richly colored extended chords found in bebop jazz, such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths, and dominant seventh chords with altered ninths and thirteenths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyrhythm</span> Simultaneous use of two or more conflicting rhythms

Polyrhythm is the simultaneous use of two or more rhythms that are not readily perceived as deriving from one another, or as simple manifestations of the same meter. The rhythmic layers may be the basis of an entire piece of music (cross-rhythm), or a momentary section. Polyrhythms can be distinguished from irrational rhythms, which can occur within the context of a single part; polyrhythms require at least two rhythms to be played concurrently, one of which is typically an irrational rhythm. Concurrently in this context means within the same rhythmic cycle. The underlying pulse, whether explicit or implicit can be considered one of the concurrent rhythms. For example, the son clave is poly-rhythmic because its 3 section suggests a different meter from the pulse of the entire pattern.

Makossa is a music genre originating in Douala, Kamerun in the late 20th century. Like much other music of Sub-Saharan Africa, it uses strong electric bass rhythms and prominent brass. Makossa uses guitar accompaniments, in the forms of solo and rhythm guitar, with a main singer and a choir of backup singers, with the focus being on the texture of the guitar, the role it plays in the song, the relationship between it and other instruments, the lyrical content and languages sung as well as their relationship with the music, the uses of various percussion instruments, including the bottle, the groove of the bass as well as the drums, and the use of technical knowledge and microprocessors to make the music. It is in common time (4/4) for the vast majority of cases. Language-wise, it is typically sung in French, Duala or Pidgin English. Tempo-wise, it is typically in between 130 and 170 BPM. It traditionally consisted of guitar-picking techniques that borrows from bikutsi; with a guitar-structure of a guitar switching from solo to rhythm from assiko; supplanted with complex bass grooves, and gradually picked up on brass section, from funk and later in the 70s, string section, from disco. It along with this acquired the sebene from Congolese rumba. In the 1980s makossa had a wave of mainstream success across Africa and to a lesser extent abroad. It is considered to be one of the greatest Cameroonian and even African "adventures" as a music.

There are many styles of traditional and modern music of Ghana, due to Ghana's worldwide geographic position on the African continent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music of Nigeria</span>

The music of Nigeria includes many kinds of folk and popular music. Little of the country's music history prior to European contact has been preserved, although bronze carvings dating back to the 16th and 17th centuries have been found depicting musicians and their instruments. The country's most internationally renowned genres are Indigenous, Apala, Aurrebbe music, Rara music, Were music, Ogene, Fuji, Jùjú, Afrobeat, Afrobeats, Igbo highlife, Afro-juju, Waka, Igbo rap, Gospel,Nigerian pop and Yo-pop. Styles of folk music are related to the over 250 ethnic groups in the country, each with their own techniques, instruments, and songs. The largest ethnic groups are the Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba. Traditional music from Nigeria and throughout Africa is often functional; in other words, it is performed to mark a ritual such as the wedding or funeral and not to achieve artistic goals. Although some Nigerians, especially children and the elderly, play instruments for their own amusement, solo performance is otherwise rare. Music is closely linked to agriculture, and there are restrictions on, for example, which instruments can be played during different parts of the planting season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music of Kenya</span>

The music of Kenya is very diverse, with multiple types of folk music based on the variety over 50 regional languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music of Cameroon</span>

The music of the Cameroon includes diverse traditional and modern musical genres. The best-known contemporary genre is makossa, a popular style that has gained fans across Africa, and its related dance craze bikutsi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clave (rhythm)</span> Rhythmic pattern in Cuban music

The clave is a rhythmic pattern used as a tool for temporal organization in Brazilian and Cuban music. In Spanish, clave literally means key, clef, code, or keystone. It is present in a variety of genres such as Abakuá music, rumba, conga, son, mambo, salsa, songo, timba and Afro-Cuban jazz. The five-stroke clave pattern represents the structural core of many Cuban rhythms. The study of rhythmic methodology, especially in the context of Afro-Cuban music, and how it influences the mood of a piece is known as clave theory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music of Togo</span>

The music of Togo has produced a number of internationally known popular entertainers including Bella Bellow, Akofah Akussah, Afia Mala, Itadi Bonney, Wellborn, King Mensah and Jimi Hope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mbube (genre)</span> South African music genre

Mbube is a form of South African vocal music, made famous by the South African group Ladysmith Black Mambazo. The word mbube means "Lion" in Zulu. Traditionally performed acappella, the members of the group are male, although a few groups have a female singer. In this form, groups of voices singing homophonically in rhythmic unison are employed to create intricate harmonies and textures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African popular music</span>

African popular music, can be defined as any African music, regardless of genre, that uses Western pop musical instruments, such as the guitar, piano, trumpet, etc. Afropop is a genre of music that combines elements from both African traditional music with Western pop music, characterized by the use of African rhythms and melodies, as well as western instrumentation and production techniques. Like African traditional music, Afropop is vast and varied. Most contemporary genres of western popular music build on cross-pollination with traditional African American and African popular music. Many genres in popular music of rock, metal, pop, blues, jazz, salsa, zouk, and rumba derive, of varying degrees, musical traditions from Africa cultured to the Americas, by enslaved Africans. These rhythms and sounds have subsequently been adapted by newer genres like hip-hop, and R&B. Likewise, African popular music have adopted Western music industry recording studio techniques. The term does not refer to a specific style or sound but is used as a general term for African popular music.

Afro-Caribbean music is a broad term for music styles originating in the Caribbean from the African diaspora. These types of music usually have West African/Central African influence because of the presence and history of African people and their descendants living in the Caribbean, as a result of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. These distinctive musical art forms came about from the cultural mingling of African, Indigenous, and European inhabitants. Characteristically, Afro-Caribbean music incorporates components, instruments and influences from a variety of African cultures, as well as Indigenous and European cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music of West Africa</span>

The music of West Africa has a significant history, and its varied sounds reflect the wide range of influences from the area's regions and historical periods.

Afro rock is a style of rock music with African influences. Afro rock is a dynamic interplay between Western rock music and African musical elements such as rhythm, melodies and instrumentation. Afro rock bands and artists in the late 1960s and early 1970s included Osibisa, Assagai and Lafayette Afro Rock Band.

Little is known about the exact origin of the music now known as the blues. No specific year can be cited as its origin, largely because the style evolved over a long period but blues is inarguably a Black American art form as it is noted "it is impossible to say exactly how old blues is - certainly no older than the presence of Negroes in the United States. It is native American Music, the product of the Black in this Country or to put it more exactly the way I have come to think about it, blues could not exist if African Captives had not become American Captives". Ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik traces the roots of many of the elements that were to develop into the blues back to the African continent, the "cradle of the blues". One important early mention of something closely resembling the blues comes from 1901, when an archaeologist in Mississippi described the songs of black workers which had lyrical themes and technical elements in common with the blues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuban rumba</span> Music genre originating from Cuba

Rumba is a secular genre of Cuban music involving dance, percussion, and song. It originated in the northern regions of Cuba, mainly in urban Havana and Matanzas, during the late 19th century. It is based on African music and dance traditions, namely Abakuá and yuka, as well as the Spanish-based coros de clave. According to Argeliers León, rumba is one of the major "genre complexes" of Cuban music, and the term rumba complex is now commonly used by musicologists. This complex encompasses the three traditional forms of rumba, as well as their contemporary derivatives and other minor styles.

In music, a cross-beat or cross-rhythm is a specific form of polyrhythm. The term cross rhythm was introduced in 1934 by the musicologist Arthur Morris Jones (1889–1980). It refers to a situation where the rhythmic conflict found in polyrhythms is the basis of an entire musical piece.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhythm in Sub-Saharan Africa</span> Periodicity in music developed by sub-Saharan African peoples

Sub-Saharan African music is characterised by a "strong rhythmic interest" that exhibits common characteristics in all regions of this vast territory, so that Arthur Morris Jones (1889–1980) has described the many local approaches as constituting one main system. C. K. Ladzekpo also affirms the profound homogeneity of approach. West African rhythmic techniques carried over the Atlantic were fundamental ingredients in various musical styles of the Americas: samba, forró, maracatu and coco in Brazil, Afro-Cuban music and Afro-American musical genres such as blues, jazz, rhythm & blues, funk, soul, reggae, hip hop, and rock and roll were thereby of immense importance in 20th century popular music. The drum is renowned throughout Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guajeo</span> Arpeggiated melodic motif found in salsa and other Cuban musical genres

A guajeo is a typical Cuban ostinato melody, most often consisting of arpeggiated chords in syncopated patterns. Some musicians only use the term guajeo for ostinato patterns played specifically by a tres, piano, an instrument of the violin family, or saxophones. Piano guajeos are one of the most recognizable elements of modern-day salsa. Piano guajeos are also known as montunos in North America, or tumbaos in the contemporary Cuban dance music timba.

Music and Black liberation refers to music associated with Black political movements for emancipation, civil rights, or self-determination. The connection between music and politics has been used in many cultures and was utilized by blacks in their struggle for freedom and civil rights. Music has been used by African Americans over the course of United States history to express feelings of struggle and hope, as well as to foster a sense of solidarity to aid their fight for liberation and justice. African Americans have used music as a way to express their struggle for freedom and equality which has spanned the history of the United States which has resulted in the creation and popularization of many music genres including, jazz, funk, disco, rap, and hip hop. Many of these songs and artists played pivotal roles in generating support for the civil rights movement.

References

  1. 1 2 Collins, Professor John (2002). "African Popular Music". University of Alberta. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  2. 1 2 "Definitions of Styles and Genres: Traditional and Contemporary African Music". CBMR. Columbia University. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  3. Estrella, Espie. "African music". Music Education. about.com. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
  4. Takyiwaa, Manuh; Esi, Sutherland-Addy (8 May 2014). Africa in Contemporary Perspective: A Textbook for Undergraduate Students. Sub-Saharan Publishers. p. 430. ISBN   978-9988-647-37-7.
  5. Crossley, Nick (2022). "Musicking to Music Worlds: On Christopher Small's Important Innovation" (PDF). Music Research Annual. 3.
  6. Darkwa, Asante (1987). "Culture and communication: music, song and dance as medium of communications in África". Revista África. 10 (10): 131–139. doi: 10.11606/issn.2526-303X.v0i10p131-139 .
  7. Floyd, Samuel A. (1995). The Power of Black Music: Interpreting Its History from Africa to the United States. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–34.
  8. 1 2 Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001). Culture and customs of Somalia . Greenwood. pp.  170–171. ISBN   978-0-313-31333-2.
  9. Hoppenstand, Gary (2007). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Popular Culture, Volume 4. Greenwood Press. p. 205. ISBN   978-0-313-33255-5.
  10. 1 2 Shelemay, Kay Kaufman (2001). "Ethiopia". In Sadie, Stanley; Tyrrell, John (eds.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Vol. viii (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 356.
  11. Abatte Barihun, liner notes of the album Ras Deshen, 200.
  12. 1 2 Jones, A. M. (1959). Studies in African Music. London: Oxford University Press. 1978 edition: ISBN   0-19-713512-9.
  13. Ladzekpo, C. K. (1996). "Cultural Understanding of Polyrhythm". Foundation Course in African Music.
  14. GCSE Music – Edexcel Areas of Study, Coordination Group Publications, UK, 2006, p. 36.
  15. 1 2 Curiel, Jonathan (15 August 2004). "Muslim Roots of the Blues". SFGate . San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 5 September 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2005.
  16. [mayowa.co.uk "African Traditional musical instruments"]. Mayowa Blades.{{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  17. 1 2 "African musical instruments". Contemporary African Art.
  18. GCSE Music – Edexcel Areas of Study, Coordination Group Publications, UK, 2006, p. 35, quoting examination board syllabus.
  19. Nketia, J. H. Kwabena. The Music of Africa. New York: Norton and Company, 1974. Print.
  20. Fleming, Esther (1 January 2020). "What was the origin of African popular music? – SidmartinBio". www.sidmartinbio.org. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
  21. Kubik, Gerhard, 1934- (1999). Africa and the blues. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN   0-585-20318-0. OCLC 44959610
  22. Pareles, Jon (11 February 2020). "Joseph Shabalala, Ladysmith Black Mambazo Founder, Dies at 78". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  23. Azam, O. A. (1993), "The recent influence of African Music on the American music scene and music market".
  24. Browne, David (7 November 2019). "'The Lion Sleeps Tonight': The Ongoing Saga of Pop's Most Contentious Song". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  25. "The Characters." Lion King Pride. 2008. Disney, 1997–2008. Web. 1 February 2010.
  26. "The Lion King Pride: The Characters". Lionking.org. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
  27. Davis, Joshua Clark (December 2015). "African Sounds in the American South: Community Radio, Historically Black Colleges, and Musical Pan-Africanism". Journal of Popular Music Studies. 27 (4): 437–447. doi:10.1111/jpms.12150. hdl: 11603/7377 .
  28. Conteh, Mankaprr; Makinde, Tami; Madzadza, Miya; Saraki, Seni; Wangeci, Tela (28 December 2022). "The 40 Best Afropop Songs of 2022". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  29. Braun, Ken (9 January 1994). "POP MUSIC; The Rise and Rise Of Irresistible Afropop". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  30. Pareles, Jon (13 May 1984). "With The Traditional And The Exotic, Africa Invigorates Pop". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  31. Zoldan, Sheldon (16 November 2023). "'The Lion Sleeps Tonight' Song of the Day for November 17". WGCU. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  32. Miriam Makeba#Musical style
  33. "Obituary: Miriam Makeba". TheGuardian.com . 11 November 2008.
  34. "Tony Allen: The veteran Afrobeat drummer is shaking his sticks as hard and as brilliantly as ever". The Independent. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  35. Anikulapo, Seun. "Femi And Seun Kuti Keep Their Father's Rebellious Beat". NPR.org. NPR. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  36. Roberts, John Storm (1986: cassette) Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music, Original Music.
  37. Durosomo, Damola (8 May 2020). "This video explores the countless songs that sample Manu Dibango's 'Soul Makossa'". Okay Africa. Archived from the original on 13 December 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  38. Thapa, Shaurya (6 September 2022). "The African song that inspired Shakira's Waka Waka is back, thanks to Instagram Reels". Dailyo. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
  39. Flores, Griselda (30 November 2022). "Why Shakira Remains the Queen of World Cup Music". Billboard. Archived from the original on 3 January 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  40. "Klassik Nation". Music In Africa. 8 September 2020. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  41. 1 2 Analyst, Upbeat (31 March 2021). "Why Kalpop Music Is A Revolutionary Genre". The Nairobi Upbeat. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  42. Reviewer, Upbeat (1 April 2021). "BIOGRAPHY AND CAREER OF DON SANTO". The Nairobi Upbeat. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  43. "Artists & Industry". Music In Africa. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  44. Reviewer, Upbeat (1 April 2021). "Biography and Career of Blessed Paul". The Nairobi Upbeat. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
  45. "Africa's first music download service launches in Senegal". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 24 February 2016. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 1 March 2016.
  46. "South African artists fume over lack of radio airplay". musicinafrica.net. 26 February 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
  47. "Sony Music's New Office in Africa Signals a Promising Near-Future for the Continent". Billboard. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
  48. "With 1505 musicians applying, Visa For Music 2023 receives a record number of submissions". HESPRESS English - Morocco News. 19 April 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.

Further reading