Soukous

Last updated

Soukous (from French secousse , "shock, jolt, jerk") is a genre of dance music originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) and the Republic of the Congo (formerly French Congo). [1] It derived from Congolese rumba in the 1960s, with faster dance rhythms and bright, intricate guitar improvisation, [2] and gained popularity in the 1980s in France. [3] Although often used by journalists as a synonym for Congolese rumba, both the music and dance associated with soukous differ from more traditional rumba, especially in its higher tempo, song structures and longer dance sequences. [3]

Contents

Soukous fuses traditional Congolese rhythms with contemporary instruments. It customarily incorporates electric guitars, double bass, congas, clips, a third guitar (misolo), and brass/woodwinds. [4] [5] Soukous lyrics often explore themes of love, social commentary, amorous narratives, philosophical musings, and ordinary struggles and successes. [2] Singers occasionally sing and croon in Lingala, Kikongo, French and Swahili and bands often consist of a primary vocalist accompanied by several backing singers. [6] [7]

History

Origins

The genre's origins can be traced back to the early 20th century when urban residents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo embraced the fusion of intertribal Congolese maringa dance music near Pool Malebo, infused with guitar techniques from Liberia. [8] The outflow of Kru merchants and sailors from Liberia to Brazzaville during the mid-19th century introduced distinctive guitar-playing techniques that ultimately influenced the use of the accordion to emulate local "likembe" (thumb piano, best known worldwide as a mbira) rhythms. [8] [9] As early as 1902, the accordion's melodies resonated through the streets near Pool Malebo's factories. [8]

A duo performing at Congolese rumba nightspot in Leopoldville Club de rumba congolaise a Leopoldville.jpg
A duo performing at Congolese rumba nightspot in Léopoldville

The outbreak of World War I introduced a new wave of music and dance across the Lower Congo (present-day Kongo Central) and the Pool Malebo region. [8] Emerging from labor camp and conceivably associated with the return of Matadi–Kinshasa Railway construction workers, local dances such as agbaya and maringa gained prominence. [8] The circular agbaya dance was soon replaced by partnered maringa dance music, becoming increasingly ubiquitous in Matadi, Boma, Brazzaville, and Kinshasa. [8] Initially, maringa bands featured the likembe for melody, a metal rod-struck bottle for rhythm, and a small skin-covered frame drum called patenge for counter-rhythms. [8] However, by the 1920s, accordions and acoustic guitars progressively supplanted the likembe as the quintessential melody instruments. The distinctive hip movements of maringa dancers, shifting their body weight between legs. [8] By 1935, partnered dancing's popularity dispersed expeditiously across the Congo basin, reaching even remote villages. Dance halls emerged in towns and rural areas, while conventional dancing persisted in palm branch huts. [8] In the early 1940s, Pool Malebo transformed from a barrier into a communication channel linking Brazzaville and Kinshasa. [8] The Cuban son groups like Sexteto Habanero, Trio Matamoros, and Los Guaracheros de Oriente were broadcast on Radio Congo Belge, gaining popularity in the country. [8] [10] [11] The maringa dance music—although unrelated to Cuban rumba—bore cultural homogeneity to Afro-Cubans, and was swiftly adopted throughout the Congo basin region with Cuban son influence. [8] [12]

Congolese rumba bar in Leopoldville Bar de rumba congolaise a Leopoldville de 1955 a 1965.jpg
Congolese rumba bar in Léopoldville

By the mid-1940s, the culturally homogenous maringa dance music became known as " rumba Congolaise " as the imported records of Sexteto Habanero and Trio Matamoros were often mislabelled as "rumba". [13] Ethnomusicology Professor Kazadi wa Mukuna of Kent State University explicates that the term "rumba" persisted in the Congos due to recording industry interests. Recording studio proprietors reinterpreted the term rumba by attributing it new maringa rhythm while retaining the name. [13] Consequently, their music became recognized as "Congolese rumba" or "African rumba". Antoine Wendo Kolosoy became the first star of Congolese rumba touring Europe and North America with his band Victoria Bakolo Miziki. His 1948 hit "Marie-Louise," co-written with guitarist Henri Bowane, gained popularity across West Africa. [14] [15] Bowane guitar solos invoked the sound of traditional likembe and stringed instruments played in the region. In Kinshasa's bars, Bowane reportedly extended these solos into an extended dancing section, which later became known locally as seben(e) in the 1970s. The "sebene", alongside the Congolese rumba, gained prominence in Congolese music as early pioneers revolutionized their relationship with the instruments they held. [16] [17]

Formation

Franco Luambo widely known for popularizing the restructuring of soukous Franco Luambo Makiadi.jpg
Franco Luambo widely known for popularizing the restructuring of soukous
Drummer of TPOK Jazz in Leopoldville Orchestra OK Jazz a Leopoldville de 1955 a 1965.jpg
Drummer of TPOK Jazz in Léopoldville

In the 1960s, a new wave of youth bands, often referred to as yéyé, garnered attention, overshadowing established figures like Franco Luambo and Tabu Ley Rochereau with their rhythms and dances. They elevated the rumba's tempo, elongated the seben, and coined a new name: secousse, from the French secouer, meaning "to shake." [16] Artists began incorporating faster rhythms, prominent guitar improvisation, and more distinct African elements. The drummer shifts to the high-energy beat, where the clave rhythm shifts to the snare drum, singers engage in rhythmic chanting (animation), and lead guitars take center stage. Franco Luambo, along with his band TPOK Jazz, is credited with pioneering the genre. He is also conceded for revolutionizing the genre's themes by infusing momentous social and political issues into the lyrics, transforming the music into a platform for social consciousness. [18] [2] [19] [20] Tabu Ley Rochereau and Dr. Nico Kasanda formed African Fiesta and transformed their music further by fusing Congolese folk music with soul music, as well as Caribbean and Latin beats and instrumentation. They were joined by Papa Wemba and Sam Mangwana, and classics like "Afrika Mokili Mobimba" propelled them as one of Africa's most prominent bands. [21] [22] [23] [24] The soukous scene blossomed due to limited employment prospects for youths in Zaire, with pursuing a career as a musician in Kinshasa's burgeoning soukous scene becoming one of the few available paths. [13]

1970s

At its peak in the 1970s, soukous dominated East African nightclubs' dance floors and played a pivotal role in shaping virtually all the styles of contemporary African popular music, including benga music, muziki wa dansi, highlife, palm-wine music, taarab, and inspiring the establishment of approximately 350 youth orchestras in Kinshasa, paving the way for new traditional dances, rhythmic patterns, and bands. [25] [26] [20] [27]

Zaiko Langa Langa performing in 1971. From left to right: Beaudoin Mitsho, Meridjo Belobi (behind), Enoch Zamuangana (behind), Teddy Sukami, Papa Wemba, Damien Ndebo (behind), Evoloko Jocker, Felix Manuaku Waku Congolese band Zaiko Langa Langa in 1971.jpg
Zaïko Langa Langa performing in 1971. From left to right: Beaudoin Mitsho, Meridjo Belobi (behind), Enoch Zamuangana (behind), Teddy Sukami, Papa Wemba, Damien Ndebo (behind), Evoloko Jocker, Félix Manuaku Waku

As sociopolitical turmoil in Zaire deteriorated in the 1970s, a great number of musicians ventured to Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Colombia, and many migrated en masse to Paris and Brussels. By the mid-1970s, several Congolese bands had taken up the Soukous beat in Kenyan nightclubs. [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] The vivacious cavacha dance craze, propagated by bands like Zaiko Langa Langa and Orchestra Shama Shama, swept East and Central Africa, exert influence on Kenyan musicians. [33] Played on the snare drum or hi-hat, expeditiously became a trademark of the Zairean sound in Nairobi and was habitually used by regional bands. Prominent Congolese rumba Swahili bands in Nairobi formed around Tanzanian groups like Simba Wanyika, giving rise to offshoots like Les Wanyika and Super Wanyika Stars. [25] [34] [29] Maroon Commandos, a Nairobi-based group, emulated the soukous style while infusing their unique flair. Japanese students in Kenya, including Rio Nakagawa, became enamored with Congolese music. Rio embraced Lingala and eventually led Yoka Choc Nippon, a Japanese-made Congolese rumba group. [35]

Virgin Records produced LPs by the Tanzanian-Zairean Orchestra Makassy and the Kenya-based Orchestra Super Mazembe. The Swahili track Shauri Yako ("It's your problem") became a magnum opus in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Another prestigious influential Zairean group, Les Mangelepa, moved to Kenya and gained immense popularity across East Africa. Congolese vocalist Samba Mapangala and his band Orchestra Virunga, based in Nairobi, released the LP "Malako," which became a pioneering release in Europe's emerging world music scene. [36] [37] [38]

During this epoch, African music began procuring popularity globally due to the world music movement. In Colombia, soukous gained traction, influencing local culture and playing a pivotal role in pioneering champeta. [39] [40] Zairean sailors introduced their records to Colombia, including the plate-numbered 45 RPM "El Mambote" by Congo's l'Orchestre Veve, which gained popularity. [32] The locals began replicating musical arrangements by Congolese luminaries like Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay, Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Syran Mbenza, Lokassa Ya M'Bongo, Pépé Kallé, Rémy Sahlomon, and Kanda Bongo Man. Homegrown talents like Viviano Torres, Luis Towers, and Charles King added their original compositions to the mix, maintaining the core essence of Congolese soukous. [31] [41] [32]

1980s and the Paris scene

Soukous became popular in London and Paris in the 1980s and was the only sub-Saharan African genre universally embraced in France and Belgium. A few more musicians left Kinshasa to work around Central and East Africa before settling in either the UK or France. [28] [42] [2] [43] [44] By the mid-1980s, Parisian studios were used by many soukous artists, and the music became heavily reliant on synthesizers and other electronic instruments. Some artists continued to record for the Congolese market, but others abandoned the demands of the Kinshasa public and set out to pursue new audiences. Some, like Paris-based Papa Wemba maintained two bands, Viva La Musica for soukous, and a group including French session players for international pop. [45] [46] Kanda Bongo Man, another Paris-based artist, pioneered fast, short tracks suitable for play on dance floors everywhere and popularly known as kwassa kwassa after the dance moves popularized by his and other artists' music videos. This music appealed to Africans and to new audiences as well. Artists like Diblo Dibala, Aurlus Mabele, Tchicl Tchicaya, Jeannot Bel Musumbu, Mbilia Bel, Yondo Sister, Tinderwet, Loketo, Rigo Star, Madilu System, Soukous Stars and veterans like Pepe Kalle and Koffi Olomide followed suit. Soon Paris became home to talented studio musicians who recorded for the African and Caribbean markets and filled out bands for occasional tours. [28] [47]

In the early 2000s, ndombolo, a genre named after a dance, gained widespread appeal, blending influences from soukous, kwassa kwassa, and Congolese rumba. [48]

Musical form

The basic line-up for a soukous band included three or four guitars, bass guitar, drums, brass, and vocals. [49] A soukous arrangement commences with a rumba section featuring intricate harmony. However, as the song progresses into the mid-tempo and final fast sections, harmony often simplifies to three chords. [50] In Matonge, the rhythmic guitar typically chaperones mid-tempo vocals, with bass and bass drums emphasizing strong beats while guitarists accentuate offbeats (one and two and three and four and). [50] During singing, the lead guitarist creates a groove to support harmonized call-and-response vocals. [50] Soukous lead guitarists are celebrated for their speed, precision, and nimble fingerwork, often high on the fretboard. [50]

Franco Luambo popularized placing the sebene at a song's end and using a thumb-and-forefinger picking technique for a sonic illusion of two guitar lines. [20] Sebene originates from "seven," referencing dominant 7th chords from English-speaking Ghanaian palm-wine players. [50] During a seben, the drummer signals changes, guiding guitarists to shift parts in sync with the lead player. The typical Congolese progression for sebens is I-IV-V-IV. Collaborating with other guitarists and a drummer enhances proficiency. [50]

Soukous bass parts, derived from hand-drum percussion, contribute strong rhythm and harmony. Emerging during Mobutu Sese Seko's regime in Zaire, soukous music's aggressive bass style imitated soldiers' movements, known as marche militaire. This bass style involves toggling between low and high lines, employing picking with p and i. [50]

Ndombolo

The hip-swinging dance of the fast paced soukous ndombolo has come under criticism on claims that it is obscene. There have been attempts to ban it in Mali, Cameroon and Kenya. After an attempt to ban it from state radio and television in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2000, it became even more popular. In February 2005, ndombolo music videos in the DR Congo were censored for indecency, and video clips by Koffi Olomide, JB M'Piana and Werrason were banned from the airwaves. [51] [52] [53]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</span> Overview of musical traditions in Congo-Kinshasa

Congolese music is one of the most influential music forms of the African continent. Since the 1930s, Congolese musicians have had a huge impact on the African musical scene and elsewhere. Many contemporary genres of music, such as Kenyan Benga and Colombian Champeta, have been heavily influenced by Congolese music. In 2021, Congolese rumba joined other living traditions such as Jamaican reggae music and Cuban rumba on UNESCO's "intangible cultural heritage of humanity" list.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Papa Wemba</span> Congolese musician

Jules Shungu Wembadio Pene Kikumba, known professionally as Papa Wemba, was a Congolese singer and musician who played Congolese rumba, soukous, and ndombolo. Dubbed the "King of Rumba Rock", he was one of the most popular musicians of his time in Africa and played an important role in world music. He was also a fashion icon who popularized the Sape look and style through his musical group Viva la Musica, with whom he performed on stages throughout the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African popular music</span> Overview of popular music in Africa

African popular music, like African traditional music, is vast and varied. Most contemporary genres of African popular music build on cross-pollination with Western popular music. Many genres of popular music like blues, jazz, salsa, zouk, and rumba derive to varying degrees on musical traditions from Africa, taken to the Americas by enslaved Africans. These rhythms and sounds have subsequently been adapted by newer genres like rock, and rhythm and blues. Likewise, African popular music has adopted elements, particularly the musical instruments and recording studio techniques of the Western music industry. The term does not refer to a specific style or sound but is used as a general term for African popular music.

Antoine Christophe Agbepa Mumba, known professionally as Koffi Olomidé, is a Congolese singer-songwriter, dancer, producer, and the founder of Quartier Latin International. Often referred to as the "King of Ndombolo," he is noted for his explosive high notes, deep baritone, and offbeat voice. Agbepa is considered one of the most significant figures in 20th-century Congolese and African popular music. His lyrics often explore themes of love, politics, technology, success, infidelity, religion, chicanery, and disillusionment. Through his stage performances, he introduced the slower style of the soukous known as Tcha Tcho and popularized a flamboyant fashion subculture called La Sape alongside Papa Wemba.

Kwassa kwassa is a dance created by Jeanora, a mechanic in Kinshasa from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, that started in the 1980s, where the hips move back and forth while the hands move to follow the hips. It was very popular in Africa.

Pascal-Emmanuel Sinamoyi Tabu, better known as Tabu Ley Rochereau, was a leading African rumba singer-songwriter from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He was the leader of Orchestre Afrisa International, as well as one of Africa's most influential vocalists and prolific songwriters. Along with guitarist Dr Nico Kasanda, Tabu Ley pioneered soukous and internationalised his music by fusing elements of Congolese folk music with Cuban, Caribbean and Latin American rumba. He has been described as "the Congolese personality who, along with Mobutu, marked Africa's 20th century history." He was dubbed "the African Elvis" by the Los Angeles Times. After the fall of the Mobutu regime, Tabu Ley also pursued a political career. His musical career ran parallel to the other great Congolese rhumba bandleader and rival Franco Luambo Makiadi who ran the band TPOK Jazz throughout the 1960s, 1970s and '80s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ndombolo</span> Congolese dance music genre

Ndombolo, also known as dombolo, is a genre of dance music originating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Derived from soukous in the 1990s, with fast-paced hip-swaying dance rhythms, often accompanied by upbeat, percussion-driven music, the style became widespread in the mid-1990s and the subsequent decade, dominating dancefloors in central, eastern, and western Africa. It inspired West African popular music, coupé-décalé, Kuduro, and East African dance music.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nyboma</span> Congolese musician

Nyboma Mwan'dido, often simply Nyboma, a prominent Congolese soukous tenor vocalist, has been over a fifty-year span a leading member of several outstanding bands, including Orchestre Bella Bella, Orchestre Lipua Lipua, Orchestre Kamale, Les Quatre Étoiles, and Kékélé, in addition to performing and recording as a solo artist. He is widely recognized as one of the best singers in Congolese music.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Congolese rumba</span> Genre of African music and dance

Congolese rumba, also known as African rumba, is a dance music genre originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. With its rhythms, melodies, and lyrics, Congolese rumba has gained global recognition and remains an integral part of African music heritage. In December 2021, it was added to the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage.

Bisso Na Bisso is a music collective of rappers and singers with origins from Congo Brazzaville formed in 1999. The group consisting of Ben-J, Lino and Calbo, Doc and G Kill, Mystik and the only female M'Passi was put together by French rapper Passi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wendo Kolosoy</span> Congolese musician

Antoine Wendo Kolosoy, known as Papa Wendo, was a Congolese musician. He is considered the "doyen" of Congolese rumba, a musical style blending traditional Kongolese rhythm and son cubano.

Joseph Kiambukuta Londa, known as Josky Kiambukuta, was a Congolese performing artist, singer, songwriter and composer. As a member of TPOK Jazz he played alongside Franco during their most popular period in the mid-1960s until the late 1980s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pépé Kallé</span> Musical artist

Pépé Kallé, sometimes written as Pepe Kalle was a Congolese soukous singer, musician and bandleader.

Empire Bakuba is an influential soukous band that formed in Zaire in 1972. The name of the band refers to the Bakuba Kingdom; it is sometimes reported as Empire Bakuba du Grand Kalle, in honor of Grand Kalle, the "father of Congolese music", who was also bandleader Pepe Kalle's mentor. The band has never formally disbanded, although its activity has been scarce since Pepe Kalle's death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fally Ipupa</span> Congolese singer-songwriter and dancer (born 1977)

Fally Ipupa N'simba, known professionally as Fally Ipupa, is a Congolese singer-songwriter, dancer, philanthropist, guitarist, and producer. Often referred to as the "Prince of Rumba", he is noted for his soulful and mellow tenor vocals, as well as his blend of contemporary and traditional Congolese music genres, including Congolese rumba, soukous, and ndombolo. His lyrics often encapsulate universal themes of romance, suffering, and joy.

Hervé Gola Bataringe, known professionally as Ferré Gola or Ferre Gola, is a Congolese singer, songwriter, dancer, and record producer. He is known for his "lyrical and symphonic" Congolese rumba, as well as his vocal prowess, stage presence, and compelling musical compositions. Ferré Gola is widely regarded as one of the best fifth-generation Congolese artists. His lyrics frequently explore themes of love, support, and interpersonal relationships.

Defao was a Congolese singer-songwriter. He was a member of the prominent soukous groups Grand Zaiko Wawa and Choc Stars.

Talent Latent, also simply known as Latent, is a Congolese rumba band from Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), that gained popularity in the 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jolie Detta</span> Congolese singer-songwriter, dancer, and evangelist

Jolie Detta Kamenga Kayobote, professionally known as Jolie Detta or Evangeliste Myriam, is a Congolese singer-songwriter, dancer, and evangelist. She made her music debut as a member of Choc Stars between 1983 and 1984. Detta later joined Tabu Ley's Orchestre Afrisa International in 1985 and then Franco Luambo's Ok Jazz in 1986, where she garnered national acclaim as the lead vocalist in the band's Extended Play (EP) Le Grand Maitre Franco et son Tout Puissant O.K. Jazz et Jolie Detta, in collaboration with Franco and Simaro Lutumba. The EP featured hit singles "Massu," "Cherie Okamuisi Ngai," "Layile," and "Likambo Ya Somo Lumbe," catapulted her into the limelight with a debut tour to Kenya with OK Jazz the same year. She later rejoined Choc Stars and recorded successful releases before joining Bozi Boziana's newly established ensemble Orchestre Anti-Choc in 1988 after Choc Stars disbanded. Anti-Choc's album La Reine de Sabah, released at the end of 1988, and its eponymous lead single, composed by Boziana, was named the Best Song of The Year and earned her The Best Voice of the Year for her performance. From the 1990s to the 2000s, Detta devoted herself to Christian music, switching to gospel, and relocated to Luanda, Angola.

References

  1. Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 407–408. ISBN   9780195337709.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Appiah, Anthony; Gates (Jr.), Henry Louis (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 407–408. ISBN   978-0-19-533770-9.
  3. 1 2 Peek, Philip M.; Yankah, Kwesi (2004). African Folklore: An Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 548. ISBN   9781135948733.
  4. Davies, Carole Boyce (July 29, 2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture [3 volumes]. Santa Barbara, California: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 849. ISBN   978-1-85109-705-0.
  5. Domosh, Mona; Jordan-Bychkov, Terry G.; Neumann, Roderick P.; Price, Patricia L. (2012). The Human Mosaic. Macmillan. p. 416. ISBN   978-1-4292-7200-1.
  6. Olwig, Karen Fog; Sorensen, Ninna Nyberg (August 27, 2003). Work and Migration: Life and Livelihoods in a Globalizing World. Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 56. ISBN   978-1-134-50306-3.
  7. Russell, K.F. (1997). Rhythm Music Magazine: RMM. K.F. Russell. p. 45.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Martin, Phyllis (August 8, 2002). Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–152. ISBN   978-0-521-52446-9.
  9. Kubik, Gerhard (October 30, 2010). Theory of African Music, Volume I. Chicago, Illinois, United States: University of Chicago Press. pp. 384–385. ISBN   978-0-226-45691-1.
  10. The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1. 2010 p. 407.
  11. Storm Roberts, John (1999). The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp.  217–218. ISBN   978-0-19-976148-7.
  12. Edward-Ekpu, Uwagbale (December 21, 2021). "Rumba's Congolese roots are finally being recognized by Unesco". Quartz. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
  13. 1 2 3 Mukuna, Kazadi wa (December 7, 2014). "A brief history of popular music in DRC". Music In Africa. Retrieved August 25, 2023.
  14. "Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise" [The 1970s: The Golden Age of Congolese Music]. Mbokamosika (in French). August 18, 2009. Retrieved August 26, 2023.
  15. "'Father' of Congolese rumba dies". BBC. July 30, 2008. Retrieved August 26, 2023.
  16. 1 2 Greenstreet, Morgan (December 7, 2018). "Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous". daily.redbullmusicacademy.com. Retrieved August 26, 2023.
  17. Ossinonde, Clément (August 2, 2017). "Qui est à l'origine du "Sebene" dans la musique congolaise ? Sa notation musicale ?". Pagesafrik.com (in French). Retrieved August 26, 2023.
  18. AP (1989). "Franco, 51, Zairian Band Leader And Creator of the Soukous Style". The New York Times. Retrieved November 18, 2022.
  19. Appiah, Anthony; Gates (Jr.), Henry Louis (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 407. ISBN   978-0-19-533770-9.
  20. 1 2 3 African, New (August 15, 2018). "The mixed legacy of DRC musician Franco". New African Magazine. Retrieved August 26, 2023.
  21. Roberts, John Storm. Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music. Original Music cassette tape (1986).
  22. Kisangani, Emizet Francois (November 18, 2016). Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Lanham, Maryland, United States: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 576. ISBN   978-1-4422-7316-0.
  23. Sfetcu, Nicolae (May 9, 2014). Dance Music. Nicolae Sfetcu. p. 50.
  24. Koskoff, Ellen (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa ; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean ; The United States and Canada ; Europe ; Oceania. Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. 87–88. ISBN   978-0-415-99403-3.
  25. 1 2 Stone, Ruth M., ed. (April 2, 2010). The Garland Handbook of African Music. Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 132–133. ISBN   9781135900014.
  26. Messager (August 18, 2009). "Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise". Mbokamosika (in French). Retrieved August 27, 2023.
  27. Sturman, Janet (February 26, 2019). The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture. Thousand Oaks, California, United States: SAGE Publications. ISBN   978-1-5063-5338-8.
  28. 1 2 3 Davies, Carole Boyce (July 29, 2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 849. ISBN   978-1-85109-705-0.
  29. 1 2 Trillo, Richard (2016). The Rough Guide to Kenya. London, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 598. ISBN   9781848369733.
  30. Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City, New York State: Verso Books. ISBN   978-1-78960-911-0.
  31. 1 2 Valdés, Vanessa K., ed. (June 2012). Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora. Albany, New York City, New York State: State University of New York Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN   9781438442174.
  32. 1 2 3 Hodgkinson, Will (July 8, 2010). "How African music made it big in Colombia". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved August 23, 2023.
  33. Adieu, Verckys (October 19, 2022). "congolese rumba". Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
  34. "congolese rumba". Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits. October 19, 2022. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
  35. Mwamba, Bibi (February 7, 2022). "L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale". Music in Africa (in French). Retrieved August 23, 2023.
  36. "Shauri Yako — Orchestra Super Mazembe". Last.fm. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
  37. "congo in kenya". muzikifan.com. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
  38. Nyanga, Caroline. "Stars who came for music and found eternal resting place". The Standard. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
  39. Malandra, Ocean (December 2020). Moon Cartagena & Colombia's Caribbean Coast. New York City, New York State, United States: Avalon Publishing. ISBN   9781640499416.
  40. Koskoff, Ellen, ed. (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; The United States and Canada; Europe; Oceania. Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 185.
  41. Slater, Russ (January 17, 2020). "Colombia's African Soul". Long Live Vinyl. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
  42. Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel (December 14, 2015). Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN   979-8-216-04273-0.
  43. Orlean, Susan (October 6, 2002). "The Congo Sound". The New Yorker. ISSN   0028-792X . Retrieved August 27, 2023.
  44. Daoudi, Bouziane (August 29, 1998). "World. Le chanteur ex-zaïrois en concert à l'Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo de la rumba. Koffi Olomidé. Samedi à 23 heures à l'Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris IXe. Tél.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Loi", Sonodisc" [World. The ex-Zairian singer in concert at the Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo of rumba. Koffi Olomide. Saturday at 11 p.m. at the Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris 9th. Tel.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: “Law”, Sonodisc.]. Libération (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved December 29, 2023.
  45. Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City: Verso Books. ISBN   978-1-78960-911-0.
  46. Vogel, Christoph; Network, part of the Guardian Africa (August 23, 2013). "Say my name: How 'shout-outs' keep Congolese musicians in the money". the Guardian. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
  47. "Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance". BBC News. September 29, 2014. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
  48. Powell, Azizi (May 27, 2014). "pancocojams: Nyboma & Pepe Kalle with Dally Kimoko - "Nina" (Congolese Soukous Music)". pancocojams. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
  49. Boomer, Tim; Berry, Mick; Bufe, Chaz (January 1, 2014). Bassist's Bible: How to Play Every Bass Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco. See Sharp Press. ISBN   978-1-937276-25-6.
  50. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Eyre, Banning (2002). Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music. Los Angeles, California, United States: Alfred Music Publishing. pp. 12–17. ISBN   978-0-7390-2474-4.
  51. "Anger at Cameroon dance ban; BBC News", BBC News, July 25, 2000
  52. "Ndombolo music videos in DR Congo censored for indecency, Lifestyle News, February 11, 2005"
  53. "Why is this 'Ndombolo' generating so much heat?", Daily Nation (Kenya) October 11, 1998

Bibliography