Climate change in Fiji

Last updated
Temperature change in Fiji, 1901 to 2020. Temperature Bar Chart Pacific-Fiji--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png
Temperature change in Fiji, 1901 to 2020.

Climate change in Fiji is an exceptionally pressing issue for the country - as an island nation, Fiji is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels, coastal erosion and extreme weather. [1] These changes, along with temperature rise, will displace Fijian communities and will prove disruptive to the national economy - tourism, agriculture and fisheries, the largest contributors to the nation's GDP, will be severely impacted by climate change causing increases in poverty and food insecurity. [1] As a party to both the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement, Fiji hopes to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts of climate change. [2]

Contents

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions moderately (4.6 out of 6) in Fiji. [3]

Greenhouse gas emissions

Fiji's annual carbon dioxide emissions between 1960 and 2016 FijiCO2Emissions.png
Fiji's annual carbon dioxide emissions between 1960 and 2016

Fiji's CO2 emissions have been steadily rising since the mid-1980s, and the country currently emits approximately 1.47 million metric tons of carbon dioxide per year, equating to 1.59 tons per capita. [4] Despite its rising emissions, Fiji is still a very small contributor to global CO2 emissions, representing approximately 0.004% of global emissions in 2021. [4] In terms of other greenhouse gases, Fiji's per capita methane and nitrous oxide emissions are low, equating to 0.72 tons and 0.19 tons respectively in 2021. [4]

Energy production and consumption

Due to its lack of infrastructural capabilities, Fiji - like many other Pacific island nations - is still heavily dependent on oil imports to meet its energy needs. As such, 75% of Fiji's electricity was generated from oil, which accounted for 21.7% of its imports for 2019. [5] [6] In 2019, 25% of Fiji's energy came from renewable energy sources: 69% of renewable energy was generated from bioenergy, 30% from hydropower and the remaining 1% from solar. [6]

Following the publication of the Climate Change Act 2021, which includes the commitment for all power to be generated from renewable sources by 2030, Fiji's renewable energy production has increased substantially. In 2021, fossil fuel generation dropped to 38.5% of Fiji's energy mix, while 61.5% came from renewable sources. [7]

Impacts on the natural environment

Temperature and weather change

Tropical storm in Fiji, 2012 Tropical Storm in Fiji (6762609717).jpg
Tropical storm in Fiji, 2012

Similar to the majority of countries around the world, Fiji's temperature is rising as a result of climate change. The average maximum temperature of the country is rising at a rate of roughly 0.16 °C per year and has risen by almost 1.0 °C since 1950. [8] Fiji's temperature is projected to continue to increase: under a high-emissions scenario, which assumes little to no change in greenhouse gas emissions, temperatures could rise by 0.4 °C - 1.0 °C by 2030. [9]

Fiji's changing climate is causing higher rates of extreme weather, which Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama stated is creating an "almost constant level of threat" in Fiji, which he argues is causing the nation to engage in a "fight for survival". [10] 12 cyclones have hit Fiji since 2016, including Cyclone Winston, a Category-5 tropical cyclone which impacted approximately 350,000 people and caused FJ$2.98 billion in damages. [11] [12] Studies show that while the future frequency of tropical cyclones will be largely unaffected or may even decrease as a result of climate change, the intensity of tropical cyclones is likely to increase, posing a greater risk to vulnerable low-lying nations such as Fiji. [13] While Fiji's rainfall is not currently projected to be directly affected by climate change, flooding often occurs from heavy rainfall and sea swells resulting from passing cyclones. [14]

Sea level rise

According to government estimates, Fiji's sea levels are rising at a rate of 4.6mm/year while sea level rise is expected to reach 0.21 to 0.48 metres by the end of the 21st century. [15] It is estimated that the compound effects of sea level rise and storm surge may result in high numbers of temporary relocation of the inhabitants of Viti Levu, predominantly the northern and western parts. [16]

The effects of sea level rise are already being felt on Fiji's coastal communities - in 2014, the village of Vunidogoloa became the first community that was forced to relocate 2 kilometres to escape from coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion and flooding as a result of sea level rise. [17] The number of coastal communities that will be forced to relocate will only increase in the future: the government of Fiji has identified 830 communities vulnerable to climate-related impacts - of these, 48 require urgent relocation. [17] Rising sea levels will have a large impact on Fiji's infrastructure - estimates suggest that 4.5% of buildings in Fiji will be inundated by a 22 cm sea level rise, which increases to 6.2% if the water level rises by 63 cm. [18]

Water resources

Fiji has a high dependency on rainfall to secure fresh water and lacks the infrastructure to store and transport water, and as a result it is extremely vulnerable to drought. [19] While Fiji's average rainfall is not expected to change in the future, the drought periods associated with El Niño will become more intense, resulting in Fiji's water security becoming more threatened in decades to come. [19] [20]

Additionally, warming temperatures are expected to increase evaporation of freshwater, while rising sea levels and storm surges will pose an increasing threat of salinisation to freshwater resources, particularly groundwater. [19] [21]

Ecosystems and biodiversity

Mangroves

Fiji's mangrove forests are of high ecological importance to the islands, as they provide protection from coastal erosion, create habitats for marine organisms and assist in reducing water sedimentation and pollution. [22] Though data on mangrove abundance is quite dated, the most recent study calculated that Fiji's mangroves cover 517 km2, giving it the third largest mangrove area in the Pacific Islands after Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. [22] Rising sea levels and associated coastal erosion pose a large threat to existing mangrove forests, as does the increasing salinisation of the oceans and the increasing intensity of tropical cyclones due to climate change, the latter of which was responsible for 77% of mangrove loss between 2001 and 2018. [23] [24]

The loss of mangrove forests would have a significant impact on the Fijian marine environment, as many plant and animal species depend on mangroves for nursery grounds and habitats. [25] Mangrove conservation is also important as the ecosystem has one of the highest rates of carbon sequestration, so the reduction of Fiji's mangrove forests would release large amounts of stored CO2 and would greatly reduce the nation's emissions reduction capabilities. [26]

Coral reefs

There is thought to be over 10,000 km2 of coral reefs in Fiji - these reefs are made up of a record 300 species of coral and are home to over 475 mollusc and 2,000 fish species. [27] Climate change is posing a significant threat to reefs by elevating sea surface temperature - corals are highly sensitive to temperature changes, which can cause bleaching when severe. [28] Additionally, the increasing concentration of CO2 in oceans as a result of climate change cause ocean acidification which weakens coral skeletons, making them more vulnerable to bioerosion, disease, bleaching and extreme weather events. [29] As a result, an estimated 31% of Pacific coral reefs are at medium risk of degradation, while a further 10% are at high risk. [30]

Impacts on people

Agriculture and food security

Fiji's agricultural sector is of fundamental importance to its domestic economy - while it does form a large proportion of its GDP, the vast majority of Fijian agriculture is subsistence with an estimated 87% - 89% being owned under traditional governance systems. [31] [32] Due to the dependency of Fiji's rural population on natural resources and small-scale farming, Fijian agriculture is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events, rainfall and temperature variability and sea level rise resulting from climate change, all of which erode Fiji's long-term food security prospects. [33]

Fiji's export crops, primarily sugar, will also become increasingly affected by the changing climate. The 2009 floods in Fiji caused FJ$24 million in damages to the sugar industry and caused an estimated 50% of affected sugarcane growers to fall below the poverty line in the aftermath. [34] Sugar exports, which represented US$59.7 million in export value in 2019, will be largely unaffected by rising temperatures but face a large threat from the projected increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events in the region. [35] [36] Overall, it is thought that the greatest future climate change-related threat to Fijian agricultural will come from tropical storms, where the benefits of less frequent cyclones will be more than offset by the negative impact of increasing storm intensity. [37]

Fisheries

As an island nation, Fiji has had a heavy reliance on fish for much of its history, both as a staple food and as an economic product. While fisheries only contributed 1.7% of total gross GDP between 2000 and 2008, it represented 12% of Fiji's exports in 2008, equivalent to US$63 million. [38] However, the impact of climate change on the Pacific Ocean is expected to destabilise the marine environment which will pose a large threat to the Fijian fisheries industry: shrinking habitats and decreasing primary productivity as a result of phytoplankton and zooplankton die-offs. [39]

Fiji's tuna industry will be particularly impacted by climate change - while tuna catches represented 60% of Fiji's 2008 fish exports, the warming of ocean waters due climate change is affecting tuna migration patterns which is significantly lowering stocks in Fiji's waters. [38] [40] Since climate change will largely impact ocean fishing, Fiji is expected to gain a larger reliance on freshwater aquaculture in the future: while coastal fishing production has been modelled to decrease by 27% by 2050 under a baseline climate change scenario, freshwater fish production is expected to increase by an estimated 146% in the same time period; this increase may be as high as 266% if widespread aquaculture development occurs. [41]

Tourism

Tourism is one of the most significant contributors to the Fijian economy, representing nearly 40% of its GDP and employing 150,000 people as of 2020; [42] it is also Fiji's fastest-growing economic sector: in 2005 it represented only 17% of GDP and employed roughly 40,000 workers. [43] As well as damage to tourist infrastructure and increasing instability of tourist volumes due to changing weather conditions, the Fijian government recognises that diverting investment into climate mitigation and adaption challenges will likely have a negative economic impact on the tourist industry. [43]

However, perhaps the greatest impact that climate change has on Fijian tourism is through the degradation of the natural environment, particularly with reef degradation and coral bleaching: much of Fiji's tourism focuses on marine activities such as scuba diving, so the degradation of reef quality is resulting in lost revenue for the tourism industry and the gradual shift to inland tourism. [44] In terms of economic losses, Fiji's tourism revenues are predicted to fall by roughly 35% between the present and 2100 as a result of climate change. [45]

Mitigation and adaptation

Planting mangroves along Fiji's coastline is one of many climate change mitigation projects taking place on the islands. Helping the Environment.jpg
Planting mangroves along Fiji's coastline is one of many climate change mitigation projects taking place on the islands.

National policies and legislation

In order to implement its climate change commitments under the Paris Agreement, the Climate Change Act 2021 was approved by Fiji's parliament on 23 September 2021. [46] As well as officially declaring a climate emergency, the bill sets out Fiji's climate mitigation and adaption strategies, outlines governmental responses to climate displacement and establishes committees, protocols and policies for attaining its climate change targets. [47] Key targets set out by the Act include reaching net zero by 2050 and designating 30% of territorial waters as a marine protected area by 2030. [46]

To conserve the local ecosystem and protect itself from future extreme weather events, Fiji has implemented a REDD+ programme (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries) since 2009. [48] The REDD+ programme is highly important to the environment of Fiji, as strengthening forestry sustainability will not only help to protect against soil erosion and protect coastlines from storm damage but will also allow for the sustainable exploitation of forest resources into the future: [49]

The REDD+ programme will contribute to Fiji managing its forest resources sustainably and mitigate climate change. It will also protect and enhance the ecosystem services provided by forests, including the provision of clean water, wild edible plants, fertile soil and sources of livelihood.

—  Viliame Naupoto, Fijian Permanent Secretary for Fisheries and Forests [49]

International cooperation

The 2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Bonn under Fiji's presidency. COP23 buildup at the Rheinaue 01.jpg
The 2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Bonn under Fiji's presidency.

Fiji became a signatory to first the Kyoto Protocol on 17 September 1998 and the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016. [50] On the 5th of March 2019, Fiji submitted its long-term climate action plan to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change - central to this is its aim to reach net-zero emissions across all sectors by 2050. [2]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Tuvalu</span> Overview of the geography of Tuvalu

The Western Pacific nation of Tuvalu, formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is situated 4,000 kilometers (2,500 mi) northeast of Australia and is approximately halfway between Hawaii and Australia. It lies east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands, southeast of Nauru, south of Kiribati, west of Tokelau, northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna and north of Fiji. It is a very small island country of 26 km2 (10 sq mi). Due to the spread out islands it has the 38th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 749,790 km2 (289,500 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Fiji</span>

Fiji is a group of volcanic islands in the South Pacific, lying about 4,450 kilometres (2,765 mi) southwest of Honolulu and 1,770 km (1,100 mi) north of New Zealand. Of the 332 islands and 522 smaller islets making up the archipelago, about 106 are permanently inhabited. The total land size is 18,272 km2 (7,055 sq mi). It has the 26th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 1,282,978 km2 (495,361 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environment of Australia</span>

The Australian environment ranges from virtually pristine Antarctic territory and rainforests to degraded industrial areas of major cities. Forty distinct ecoregions have been identified across the Australian mainland and islands. Central Australia has a very dry climate. The interior has a number of deserts while most of the coastal areas are populated. Northern Australia experiences tropical cyclones while much of the country is prone to periodic drought. This dry and warm environment and exposure to cyclones, makes Australia particularly vulnerable to climate change -- with some areas already experiencing increases in wildfires and fragile ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in South Asia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of South Asian countries related to climate change

Climate change in South Asia is having significant impacts already which are expected to intensify as global temperatures rise due to climate change. The South Asia region consists of the eight countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka. In the 2017 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, Bangladesh and Pakistan ranked sixth and seventh respectively as the countries most affected by climate change in the period from 1996 to 2015, while India ranked fourth among the list of countries most affected by climate change in 2015. The Indian subcontinent is one of the most vulnerable regions globally to a number of direct and indirect effects of climate change, including sea level rise, cyclonic activity, and changes in ambient temperature and precipitation patterns. Ongoing sea level rise has already submerged several low-lying islands in the Sundarbans region, displacing thousands of people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Australia</span> Impacts of climate change on Australia and responses

Climate change has been a critical issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century. Australia is becoming hotter and more prone to extreme heat, bushfires, droughts, floods, and longer fire seasons because of climate change. Climate issues include wildfires, heatwaves, cyclones, rising sea levels, and erosion.

Climate change is an urgent and significant issue affecting Japan. In recent years, the country has observed notable changes in its climate patterns, with rising temperatures serving as a prominent indicator of this phenomenon. As an archipelago situated in northeastern Asia, Japan is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its diverse geography and exposure to various weather systems. The nation experiences a broad range of climates, spanning from the frigid winters of Hokkaido to the subtropical climates of Okinawa. Changes in temperature patterns have the potential to disrupt ecosystems, impact agricultural productivity, modify water resources, and pose significant challenges to infrastructure and human settlements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and fisheries</span>

Fisheries are affected by climate change in many ways: marine aquatic ecosystems are being affected by rising ocean temperatures, ocean acidification and ocean deoxygenation, while freshwater ecosystems are being impacted by changes in water temperature, water flow, and fish habitat loss. These effects vary in the context of each fishery. Climate change is modifying fish distributions and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. Climate change is expected to lead to significant changes in the availability and trade of fish products. The geopolitical and economic consequences will be significant, especially for the countries most dependent on the sector. The biggest decreases in maximum catch potential can be expected in the tropics, mostly in the South Pacific regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Tuvalu</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Tuvalu related to climate change

Climate change is particularly threatening for the long-term habitability of the island country of Tuvalu, which has a land area of only 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi) and an average elevation of less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Potential threats to the country due to climate change include rising sea levels, increasingly severe tropical cyclones, high temperatures, and drought.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Sri Lanka</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Sri Lanka related to climate change

Climate change is an important issue in Sri Lanka, and its effects threaten to impact both human and natural systems. Roughly 50 percent of its 22 million citizens live in low-lying coastal areas in the west, south, and south-west of the island, and are at risk of future sea level rise. Climate change also threatens the island's biodiversity, including its marine ecosystem and coastal coral reef environments. Sea-level rise due to climate change has the potential to affect the overall abundance of endemic species. Sri Lanka's coastal regions, such as the Northern Province and the Northern Western Province, are considered major hotspots and extremely vulnerable to climate change. These maritime provinces are the most densely populated. In addition to being a threat to Sri Lanka's biodiversity, climate change may cause disastrous consequences on various levels in such areas. Such consequences include: Affecting agricultural productivity, causing natural disasters like floods and droughts, increasing the spread of infectious illnesses, and finally undermining the living standards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on oceans</span> Overview of all the effects of climate change on oceans

There are many effects of climate change on oceans. One of the main ones is an increase in ocean temperatures. More frequent marine heatwaves are linked to this. The rising temperature contributes to a rise in sea levels. Other effects include ocean acidification, sea ice decline, increased ocean stratification and reductions in oxygen levels. Changes to ocean currents including a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation are another important effect. All these changes have knock-on effects which disturb marine ecosystems. The main cause of these changes is climate change due to human emissions of greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide and methane are examples of greenhouse gases. This leads to ocean warming, because the ocean takes up most of the additional heat in the climate system. The ocean absorbs some of the extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This causes the pH value of the ocean to drop. Scientists estimate that the ocean absorbs about 25% of all human-caused CO2 emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on small island countries</span>

The effects of climate change on small island countries are impacting people who live in coastal areas through sea level rise, increasing heavy rain events, tropical cyclones and storm surges. The effects of climate change threaten the existence of many island countries, island peoples and their cultures, and will alter their ecosystems and natural environments. Despite their heterogeneity, small island developing states (SIDS) are recognized as being particularly at risk to climate change. They share numerous common traits and have been quite vocal in calling attention to the challenges they face from climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Sri Lanka</span>

Environmental issues in Sri Lanka include large-scale logging of forests and degradation of mangroves, coral reefs and soil. Air pollution and water pollution are challenges for Sri Lanka since both cause negative health impacts. Overfishing and insufficient waste management, especially in rural areas, leads to environmental pollution. Sri Lanka is also vulnerable to climate change impacts such as extreme weather events and sea level rise.

Climate change in Guam encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. territory of Guam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Puerto Rico</span> Climate change in the US territory of Puerto Rico

Climate change has had large impacts on the ecosystems and landscapes of the US territory Puerto Rico. According to a 2019 report by Germanwatch, Puerto Rico is the most affected by climate change. The territory's energy consumption is mainly derived from imported fossil fuels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the United States Virgin Islands</span> Impacts and responses of the US Virgin Islands related to climate change

Climate change in the United States Virgin Islands encompasses the effects of climate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, in the U.S. territory of the United States Virgin Islands. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has noted a variety of expected consequences of this phenomenon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the Caribbean</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the Caribbean region related to climate change

Climate changein the Caribbean poses major risks to the islands in the Caribbean. The main environmental changes expected to affect the Caribbean are a rise in sea level, stronger hurricanes, longer dry seasons and shorter wet seasons. As a result, climate change is expected to lead to changes in the economy, environment and population of the Caribbean. Temperature rise of 2 °C above preindustrial levels can increase the likelihood of extreme hurricane rainfall by four to five times in the Bahamas and three times in Cuba and Dominican Republic. Rise in sea level could impact coastal communities of the Caribbean if they are less than 3 metres (10 ft) above the sea. In Latin America and the Caribbean, it is expected that 29–32 million people may be affected by the sea level rise because they live below this threshold. The Bahamas is expected to be the most affected because at least 80% of the total land is below 10 meters elevation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the Philippines</span> Impact of climate change on the Philippines

Climate change is having serious impacts in the Philippines such as increased frequency and severity of natural disasters, sea level rise, extreme rainfall, resource shortages, and environmental degradation. All of these impacts together have greatly affected the Philippines' agriculture, water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems and they are projected to continue having devastating damages to the economy and society of the Philippines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Kenya</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Kenya related to climate change

Climate change is posing an increasing threat to global socio-economic development and environmental sustainability. Developing countries with low adaptive capacity and high vulnerability to the phenomenon are disproportionately affected. Climate change in Kenya is increasingly impacting the lives of Kenya's citizens and the environment. Climate Change has led to more frequent extreme weather events like droughts which last longer than usual, irregular and unpredictable rainfall, flooding and increasing temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Indonesia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Indonesia

Due to its geographical and natural diversity, Indonesia is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of climate change. This is supported by the fact that Jakarta has been listed as the world's most vulnerable city, regarding climate change. It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contributed most to greenhouse gas emissions due to its high rate of deforestation and reliance on coal power.

The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the "canaries in the coal mine," who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, "coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future," meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.

References

  1. 1 2 COP23. "How Fiji is Affected by Climate Change". Cop23. Archived from the original on 2022-08-28. Retrieved 2021-07-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  2. 1 2 UN Climate Change News (5 March 2019). "Fiji Submits Long-Term National Climate Plan". unfccc.int. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  3. ↑ "Fiji - HRMI Rights Tracker". rightstracker.org. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  4. 1 2 3 Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max. "Fiji: CO2 Country Profile". Our World in Data. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  5. ↑ The Observatory of Economic Complexity. "Fiji Exports, Imports and Trade Partners". OEC. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  6. 1 2 International Renewable Energy Agency (24 August 2022). Energy profile - Fiji (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  7. ↑ International Trade Administration. "Fiji - Country commercial guide - renewable energy" . Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  8. ↑ Pacific Climate Science Program (2011). Current and future climate of the Fiji Islands (PDF) (Report). Australian Government. p. 4. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  9. ↑ Pacific Climate Science Program (2011). Current and future climate of the Fiji Islands (PDF) (Report). Australian Government. p. 6. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  10. ↑ "Fiji PM: Climate change threatens our survival". BBC. Reuters. 3 April 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  11. ↑ Fiji: Severe Tropical Cyclone Winston Situation Report No. 8 (as of 28 February 2016) (PDF). United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (Report). ReliefWeb. 28 February 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  12. ↑ Tuilevuka, Nacanieli (24 May 2016). "$2.98 billion damage caused by TC Winston". Newswire. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
  13. ↑ Knutson, Thomas R.; McBride, John L.; Chan, Johnny; Emanuel, Kerry; Holland, Greg; Landsea, Chris; Held, Isaac; Kossin, James P.; Srivastava, A. K.; Sugi, Masato (2010). "Tropical cyclones and climate change". Nature Geoscience. 3 (3): 158. Bibcode:2010NatGe...3..157K. doi:10.1038/ngeo779. hdl: 1721.1/62558 .
  14. ↑ Government of the Republic of Fiji (2012). Republic of Fiji National Climate Change Policy (PDF) (Report). Secretariat of the Pacific Community. p. 6.
  15. ↑ Government of the Republic of Fiji (2012). Republic of Fiji National Climate Change Policy (PDF) (Report). Secretariat of the Pacific Community. pp. 4, 7.
  16. ↑ Sabūnas, Audrius; Mori, Nobuhito; Shimura, Tomoya; Fukui, Nobuki; Miyashita, Takuya (8 April 2022). "Estimating Compounding Storm Surge and Sea Level Rise Effects and Bias Correction Impact when Projecting Future Impact on Volcanic Islands in Oceania. Case Study of Viti Levu, Fiji". Frontiers in Built Environment. 8. doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2022.796471 .
  17. 1 2 McMichael, Celia; Powell, Teresia; Ramatu, Sailosi. "Rising seas and relocation in Fiji". Asia & The Pacific Policy Society. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  18. ↑ Merschroth, Simon; Miatto, Alessio; Weyand, Steffi; Tanikawa, Hiroki; Schebek, Liselotte (22 January 2020). "Lost Material Stock in Buildings due to Sea Level Rise from Global Warming: The Case of Fiji Islands". Sustainability. 12 (3): 9. doi: 10.3390/su12030834 .
  19. 1 2 3 Duncan, David (March 2012). Freshwater under threat: Pacific Islands (PDF) (Report). United Nations Environmental Program. p. 43.
  20. ↑ Government of the Republic of Fiji (2012). Republic of Fiji National Climate Change Policy (PDF) (Report). Secretariat of the Pacific Community. pp. 2, 6–7.
  21. ↑ Burns, William C. G. (June 2002). "Chapter 5: Pacific Island Developing Country Water Resources and Climate Change". In Gleick, Peter (ed.). The World's Water. Vol. 3. Pacific Institute. pp. 124–125.
  22. 1 2 Ellison, Joanna C.; Fiu, Monifa (February 2010). Vulnerability of Fiji's mangroves and associated coral reefs to climate change (PDF) (Report). WWF South Pacific Program. p. 9.
  23. ↑ Ellison, Joanna C.; Fiu, Monifa (February 2010). Vulnerability of Fiji's mangroves and associated coral reefs to climate change (PDF) (Report). WWF South Pacific Program. pp. 26–29.
  24. ↑ Cameron, Clint; Maharaj, Anish; Kennedy, Bridget; Tuiwawa, Senilolia; Goldwater, Nick; Soapi, Katy; Lovelock, Catherine E. (January 2021). "Landcover change in mangroves of Fiji: Implications for climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Pacific". Environmental Challenges. 2: 3. doi: 10.1016/j.envc.2020.100018 . S2CID   233281746.
  25. ↑ Ellison, Joanna C.; Fiu, Monifa (February 2010). Vulnerability of Fiji's mangroves and associated coral reefs to climate change (PDF) (Report). WWF South Pacific Program. p. 29.
  26. ↑ Cameron, Clint; Maharaj, Anish; Kennedy, Bridget; Tuiwawa, Senilolia; Goldwater, Nick; Soapi, Katy; Lovelock, Catherine E. (January 2021). "Landcover change in mangroves of Fiji: Implications for climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Pacific". Environmental Challenges. 2: 1. doi: 10.1016/j.envc.2020.100018 . S2CID   233281746.
  27. ↑ WWF. "Fact Sheet: Fiji Barrier Reef marine ecoregion". WWF. World Wide Fund For Nature. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
  28. ↑ Dutra, Leo X. C.; Haywood, Michael D. E.; Singh, Shubha Shalini; Piovanno, Sunsanna; Ferreira, Marta; Johnson, Johanna E.; Veitayaki, Joeli; Kininmonth, Stuart; Morris, Cherrie W. (2018). Effects of Climate Change on Corals Relevant to the Pacific Islands (PDF) (Report). Commonwealth Marine Economies Programme. pp. 138–139.
  29. ↑ Dutra, Leo X. C.; Haywood, Michael D. E.; Singh, Shubha Shalini; Piovanno, Sunsanna; Ferreira, Marta; Johnson, Johanna E.; Veitayaki, Joeli; Kininmonth, Stuart; Morris, Cherrie W. (2018). Effects of Climate Change on Corals Relevant to the Pacific Islands (PDF) (Report). Commonwealth Marine Economies Programme. pp. 139–140.
  30. ↑ Carlos, Guillén; Velmurugan, Ayyam; Jerard, B.A.; Karthick, R.; Jaisankar, Iyyappan (2018). "Chapter 4 - Biodiversity of Polynesian Islands: Distribution and Threat From Climate Change". In Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan; Velmurugan, Ayyam; Singh, Awnindra Kumar; Jaisankar, Iyyappan (eds.). Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands. Elsevier. p. 115.
  31. ↑ Wairiu, Morgan; Lal, Murari; Iese, Viliamu (January 2012). "Chapter 5 - Climate Change Implications for Crop Production in Pacific Islands Region". In Aladjadjiyan, Anna (ed.). Food Production - Approaches, Challenges and Tasks. InTech. p. 70.
  32. ↑ Randin, Gregoire (2020). "COVID-19 and Food Security in Fiji: The Reinforcement of Subsistence Farming Practices in Rural and Urban Areas". Oceania. 90 (1): 89. doi: 10.1002/ocea.5271 .
  33. ↑ Bang, Sergie; Rücker, Gerd; Hindmarch, Colin; Raharivelomanana, Phila; Tamanikaiyaroi, Vaasiliega; Yansom Gowae, Gae; Goulding, Chris (2015). Climate Change, Agriculture and Forestry in the Pacific (PDF) (Report). Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt. p. 6.
  34. ↑ Lal, Padma N. (2010). "Vulnerability to natural disasters: an economic analysis of the impact of the 2009 floods on the Fijian sugar belt" (PDF). Pacific Economic Bulletin. 25: 68. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
  35. ↑ Observatory of Economic Complexity. "Fiji (FJI) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners". oec.world. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
  36. ↑ McGregor, Andrew; Bourke, R. Michael; Lebot, Vincent; Taylor, Mary (2016). "Chapter 5 - Vulnerability of export commodities to climate change". In Taylor, Mary; McGregor, Andrew; Dawson, Brian (eds.). Vulnerability of Pacific Island agriculture and forestry to climate change (PDF). Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. p. 268. ISBN   978-982-00-0882-3.
  37. ↑ McGregor, Andrew; Fink, Anna; Dawson, Brian (2016). "Chapter 9 - Implications of climate change for contributions by agriculture and forestry to Pacific Island economies and communities". In Taylor, Mary; McGregor, Andrew; Dawson, Brian (eds.). Vulnerability of Pacific Island agriculture and forestry to climate change (PDF). Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. p. 454. ISBN   978-982-00-0882-3.
  38. 1 2 Valmonte-Santos, Rowena; Rosegrant, Mark W.; Dey, Madan Mohan (May 2016). "Fisheries sector under climate change in the coral triangle countries of Pacific Islands: Current status and policy issues". Marine Policy. 67: 149. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2015.12.022 .
  39. ↑ Johnson, Johanna; Allain, Valerie; Bell, Johann; Lehodey, Patrick; Nicol, Simon; Senina, Inna (2018). Effects of Climate Change on Ocean Fisheries Relevant to the Pacific Islands (PDF) (Report). Commonwealth Marine Economies Program. p. 179.
  40. ↑ "Fish migration due to climate change creates tuna shortage in Fiji". tunapacific.org. TunaPacific. 10 December 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  41. ↑ Dey, Madan Mohan; Gosh, Kamal; Valmonte-Santos, Rowena; Rosegrant, Mark W.; Chen, Oai Li (May 2016). "Economic impact of climate change and climate change adaptation strategies for fisheries sector in Fiji". Marine Policy. 67: 167. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2015.12.023 .
  42. ↑ Chanel, Sheldon (15 April 2020). "'It's catastrophic': Fiji's colossal tourism sector devastated by coronavirus". The Guardian. Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  43. 1 2 Government of the Republic of Fiji (2012). Republic of Fiji National Climate Change Policy (PDF) (Report). Secretariat of the Pacific Community. p. 62.
  44. ↑ Torres-Bennett, Aileen (26 October 2018). "As warming threatens reefs, fragile Fiji explores inland tourism". Reuters. Thomas Reuters Foundation. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  45. ↑ Asian Development Bank (2013). The Economics of Climate Change in the Pacific (PDF) (Report). Asian Development Bank. p. 60. ISBN   978-92-9254-319-8.
  46. 1 2 "Climate Act 2021". Act of 23 September 2021 (PDF). Parliament of Fiji.
  47. ↑ Sloan, James; Manley, Marita. "Fiji's proposed Climate Change law is extraordinary, wide-ranging and open for consultation". www.sas.com.fj. Siwatibau & Sloan. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  48. ↑ Ward, Murray (October 2012). Going after adaption co-benefits: A REDD+ programme in Fiji (PDF) (Report). Climate Change & Knowledge Network. p. 3.
  49. 1 2 Ward, Murray (October 2012). Going after adaption co-benefits: A REDD+ programme in Fiji (PDF) (Report). Climate Change & Knowledge Network. p. 2.
  50. ↑ United Nations Climate Change. "Fiji". unfccc.int. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.