Climate change in Sweden

Last updated

Temperature rise in Sweden's climate (1750-2013) Sweden Temp (1750-2013)BE.jpg
Temperature rise in Sweden's climate (1750–2013)

Climate change has received significant scientific, public and political attention in Sweden. In 1896, Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius was the first scientist to quantify global heating. [1] Sweden has a high energy consumtion per capita, but reducing the dependency on fossil energy has been on the agenda of cabinets of the Governments of Sweden since the 1970s oil crises. [2] In 2014 and 2016, Sweden was ranked #1 in the Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), because the Swedish economy produces relatively low emissions. [3] Sweden has had one of the highest usages of biofuel in Europe and aims at prohibiting new sales of fossil-cars, including hybrid cars, by 2035, and for an energy supply system with zero net atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions by 2045. [4]

Contents

Since the end of the 19th century, the average annual temperature has risen by almost two degrees Celsius, which can be compared to global warming of just over one degree. [5] Sweden's winter temperature is predicted to further increase by as much as 7°C (13°F) by 2100 in a worst case scenario. This will increase the percentage of precipitation that comes from rain instead of snow. [6] The Baltic Sea could see a surface water temperature increase of up to 4°C (7°F). This will decrease sea ice cover by the end of the century. [6]

The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) produces guidelines and resources to help citizens adapt to climate change. [7] The MSB keeps flood and landslide maps online, and guidelines for decision-making in case of disasters. [8]

Governmental efforts include policy instruments and legislation to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Policy instruments include taxing carbon dioxide emissions, issuing renewable energy certificates, subsidizing renewable energy initiatives, and making investments in R&D.

Greenhouse gas emissions

Cyclone Gudrun in the North Sea 8 January 2005 Erwin Jan 8 2005.png
Cyclone Gudrun in the North Sea 8 January 2005

Regarding greenhouse gas emission as a whole, the country has 4 targets: from the level of 1990, emissions should be reduced by 40% by the year 2020, by 63% by the year 2030, achieve net zero emissions by 2045, and reach negative emissions after this year. [4]

In 2020, 2 years before it was planned to be done, Sweden closed its last coal fired power station and became coal free, the third country in Europe after Belgium and Austria. [9] As of 2018, 54% of energy came from renewable sources. The country has a target to achieve 100% electricity from renewables by 2040. [10]

In 2019 Sweden placed number four in the Climate Change Performance Index by Germanwatch with 76.28 points out of 100. No country was granted position one to three in the list as "No country is doing enough to prevent dangerous climate change.” [11] Sweden ranked first in both the 2014 and 2016 editions of the Global Green Economy Index (GGEI) where Sweden performs well overall and within the topic of climate change performance where it is one of the top developed countries due to the relatively low emissions intensity of the Swedish economy. [3]

The following table shows the yearly total emission of greenhouse gas in Sweden in million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2). Values for EU28 and world to compare trends. [12]

YearSweden (Mt CO2)EU28 (Mt CO2)World (Mt CO2)
19701195 50724 305
19801046 21429 989
1990815 74432 772
2000815 29735 962
2010794 95745 934
2015674 50049 113

The following table shows the yearly emission of greenhouse gas in Sweden in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per capita (t CO2/capita). [12]

YearSweden (t CO2/capita)EU28 (t CO2/capita)World (t CO2/capita)
197014.712.56.6
198012.513.46.7
19909.512.06.2
20009.110.95.9
20108.49.86.6
20156.98.96.7

For the total carbon dioxide emissions in 2009, without other Greenhouse gases or land use, at 50.56 million tonnes Sweden ranked in place 60 out of 216 countries, below Libya 55.0 million tonnes, Serbia 52.3 million tonnes and Finland 52.15 million tonnes. For the per capita carbon dioxide emissions in 2009, at 5.58 tonnes per capita (t/capita), Sweden ranked shared place 82 out of 216 countries having the same emissions as Ukraine. This was only slightly below the carbon dioxide emissions per capita in China 5.83 t/capita. [13]

In 2000, Sweden ranked in place 76 out of 185 countries for the per capita greenhouse gas emissions when taking any land use changes into account. Without considering land use changes the country ranked at fifty eighth. [14]

Climate gas emission in 2018 of public workers in Sweden was 410,000 tonnes (196,000 workers, ca 2 tonnes pro person). Naturvardsverket encourage to reduce the annual emissions in public sector. [15] In 2019 nine first months Karolinska institutet have reduced 5% all air travels and 18% Swedish air travels compared to year 2018. [16]

Road emissions

Share of biofuel increased from 22% to 23% in 2019. Road emissions declined by 2% from 2018 to 2019. To reach transport climate target by 2030 road traffic climate emissions must decline 8% a year (Sven Hunhammar, director in Trafikverket). [17]

Aviation emissions

According to Swedavia there was 40 million aviation travels in Sweden in 2019. Number decreased 9% in domestic flights and decreased 2% in international flights compared to 2018. [18] Swedish population in August 2019 was ca 10.3 million. This makes approximately in average 3.88 air travels per each citizen in Sweden in 2019.

Swedish aircraft greenhouse gas emissions equaled those of Swedish personal car traffic in 2017 according to the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and a Chalmers University study published 31 May 2019. [19] Total emissions in 2017 was one tonne carbon dioxide equivalent per Swedish person. This is five times the global average. [20]

According to Swedish TV news, the Swedish government supports taxing aviation equal to private car traffic in 2019. Swedish TV news calculated that tax will make travel to Thailand 8,900 Swedish krona more expensive. [21]

Chalmers University report 2019

Global civil aviation accounts for 4–5% of total greenhouse gas emissions and these emissions are increasing. Greenhouse gas emissions from air travel are substantial for high-income countries like Sweden. Chalmers University Gothenburg developed methodology to calculate Swedish aviation emissions. [22] [23]

The climate impact of aviation comes from CO2 emissions, emissions of nitrogen oxides above 8000 meters, and the warm aircraft emissions forming ice crystals. Total emissions were estimated by calculating the CO2 emissions by 1.9 for international flights, and by 1.4 for domestic flights. Calculation excluded emissions from the production of fuel which is 10-20% in the EU.

The Swedish population's air travel emission based on country of residence was 10 million tonnes CO2eq, in business 20% and in private travel 80%. The amount 10 million tonnes CO2eq can be compared with the bunker fuels metric which showed a total of 3.1 Mt CO2. Emissions were ca 1.1 tonnes CO2 equivalents per Swedish capita in 2017 compared to global average 0.2 tonnes per capita.

The Swedish aviation emissions are in total approximately equal to the emissions from the Swedish passenger vehicle traffic. Calculation exclude contribution of the tourists aviation visiting Sweden. Aviation emission was 170 g CO2 per passenger kilometre compared to 50 gram per kilometre and person in a car with three passengers.

Statistics on "large emitters in Sweden"

Listed below, an overview of large emitters of CO2 equivalents registered in Sweden in the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). [24] In 2018, the 584 entities registered in Sweden in EU ETS, emitting at least one tonne of CO2e, combined had verified emissions of 22,624,282 tonnes of CO2e. The column "Part of SE sum in EU ETS" is based on this sum, not the total emissions in Sweden.

Large emitters in Sweden.
EmitterVerified emissions (tonnes of CO2e) [24] Registered activityYearPart of SE sum in EU ETS Ownership comment
Scandinavian Airlines 2466820Airline201811%In early 2018 Danish state owned 14%, Swedish state 15%, Norwegian state 10%. [25] Parts of emissions likely related to activities outside Sweden.
Luleå KVV (CHP)2120996Combustion of fuels20189%Owned to equal share by SSAB and Luleå Municipality. [26]
Slitefabriken1740412Production of cement clinker20188%Owned by HeidelbergCement, through Cementa AB [27]
Preemraff Lysekil 1625082Refining of mineral oil20187%Owned by Preem
SSAB Oxelösund1462246Production of pig iron or steel20186%Owned by SSAB. Swedish state owned 2.25% in 2016. [28]
SSAB Luleå1058183Production of pig iron or steel20185%Owned by SSAB. Swedish state owned 2.25% in 2016. [28]
Krackeranläggningen, Borealis636536Combustion of fuels20183%Owned by Borealis [29]
St1 Refinery AB547101Refining of mineral oil20182.4%Owned by St1
Preemraff Göteborg 536000Refining of mineral oil20182.4%Owned by Preem
Värtan, Stockholm Exergi499698Combustion of fuels20182.2%Owned to equal share by Stockholm Municipality and Fortum, a Finnish state-owned company. [30]
LKAB Kiruna436371Metal ore roasting or sintering20181.9%Swedish state owned 100% in 2018. [31]

Impacts on the natural environment

By the end of the century, Sweden's climate will be different from today's. There are uncertainties regarding the exact scope of the change, one uncertainty being the world's political trajectory regarding climate policy. [6]

Temperature and weather changes

Koppen-Geiger Map SWE present.svg
Köppen climate classification map for Sweden for 1980–2016
Koppen-Geiger Map SWE future.svg
2071–2100 map under the most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely [32] [33] [34]

By the 2080s average temperatures are set to rise by 3–5 °C. The climate in the Mälardalen region will be similar to that of northern France. Winter temperatures are likely to see a greater increase than spring, summer and autumn temperatures. By the end of the century winters could be up to 7 °C warmer than today on average. The Norrland coast will probably be the region that sees the highest increases in temperature. [6] In May 2018 mean temperature was more than in average +5 °C in most Sweden and +2.5 °C in most Europe. In July 2018 mean temperature was more than +3–4 °C on average in most of Sweden. [35] In July 2018 Italy, Norway, Poland and France sent help to fight the dozens of forest fires in Sweden. [36]

Precipitation

Sweden's future climate is expected to be wetter, with an increase in intense rain events. Most of the increase in precipitation will be during winter and a larger proportion will fall as rain. Summers will be drier and see a reduction in heavy rain events, particularly in the southern parts of Sweden. [6]

Wind

Climate models differ on whether Sweden's climate will get windier or not. Some models predict an increase in average wind speed, whilst others predict a decrease. The predictions of one climate model able to resolve wind gusts show an increase in the speed of wind gusts in the future. [6]

Baltic sea

The surface temperature of the Baltic Sea will increase as the air temperature increases. Some models predict up to 4 °C increases in surface water temperature. Sea ice cover is expected to decrease and be localized to the northern Gulf of Bothnia by the end on the century. The salinity of the Baltic Sea is predicted to fall in some climate models as a result of increased influx of freshwater from the mainland, though other models differ significantly with some even showing an increase in salinity. [6]

Historical overview

Since the beginning of the Quaternary time period approximately 2.5 million years(Before present), Sweden's climate has alternated between glacial periods and interglacial periods. The glacial periods lasted for up to 100,000 years with temperatures possibly 20 °C lower than today's. Colder temperatures resulted in ice sheets covering most or all of Sweden. The interglacial periods were shorter, lasting 10,000–15,000 years. During these periods the climate was similar to today's with extensive forests and ice-free summers. The latest of these glacial periods was the Weichselian glaciation, lasting from about 115,000 years BP until about 11,500 years BP. At its peak 20,000–17,000 years BP, it extended into the northern parts of Germany and Poland. The transition to the current interglacial period was marked by a retreat of the Ice sheets and gradually warmer temperatures. By 6,000–7,000 years BP, the temperature was slightly warmer than today and most of the southern half of the country was covered in deciduous forests. The temperature has fluctuated since then with a weak cooling trend, leading to a relative increase in coniferous tree-cover.

Impacts on people

Economic impacts

Winter storms Gudrun in 2005 and Per in 2007 in southern Sweden overthrew huge volumes of forest and caused power cuts. [37] Storm Per on 14 January 2007 affected 440,000 electricity users and Gudrun 620,000 customers. The reallocation of capital due to power disruptions during and after storm Per was estimated to be between SEK 1 800 and 3 400 million. The network operators cost was ca SEK 1 400 million, of which SEK 750 million compensation for affected customers. The costs for electricity consumers was estimated to SEK 180–1 800 million. [38]

Health impacts

Climate change may affect the health status of the population in several ways. [39]

Cyclone Gudrun in 2005

Estimates of about 730,000 users were without electricity the night of 8 January. The storm also damaged distribution networks of Vattenfall, Kreab Öst and other smaller companies. All the electricity damage also affected telephone and computer networks.

Cyclone Gudrun hit Sweden on 8 January 2005. Before the wind speeds stopped, they had reached a maximum of 43 m/s. Wind speeds were at their strongest in the Bay of Hanö where they reached hurricane level of 33 m/s with gusts of 42 m/s. Areas like Skåne, Blekinge, Halland, Kronoberg, Gotland, and parts of Jönköping, Kalmar, and Västra Götaland counties were hit with winds reaching 30 m/s or more. Additionally, gusts of winds hit Södermanland coast, Lake Mälaren, Lake Hjälmaren and southern parts of Stockholm County. A total of eleven counties were strongly affected by the storm.

Despite the storm occurring in January, the weather at the time was mild which made the need for heat less than usual. District heating systems in urban areas did not suffer from long power cuts to cause problems. However, smaller areas did suffer from heating systems failures. Millions of trees were torn by the roots and others were cut at the trunk. Trees blocked roads and seized traffic. The lack of frost in the ground caused spruce trees to be vulnerable to the high winds. 75 million cubic meters of forest was felled which is equal to several years of normal felling in the affected areas. A major problem was telephone systems failure which delayed the clearing of roads and repair of overhead lines.

Nursing homes and elderly care services were also affected as individual safety alarms did not work. People were stranded in their cars on blocked roads. Seven people were killed in accidents and others were injured on the night of January 8th. Other deaths occurred after the storm, for example, one man was killed while attempting to fix his roof. In addition, people suffered from PTSDs. [44]

Adaptation

Sweden has socioeconomical advantages that help higher the safety awareness to prevent natural disasters. The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) creates guidelines and strategies to help the society adapt to climate change.

Floods

As Sweden is affected every year by damaging floods, the MSB maintains and compiles general flood inundation maps, which are used for risk vulnerability analysis, emergency preparedness and in land use planning by municipalities. Flood prevention can include pumping equipment, embankments and dykes, or devices to shut down water supply and sewage systems.

Forest fires

The MSB has created a national information system for fire brigades. The system is found on the Internet and it provides information about how the climate can affect vegetation fire risks. It provides data that helps with prevention and can assist in decision-making.

Storms

The MSB provides generators that can be borrowed by areas that are hit by a storm and have lost power.

Landslides

Because of Sweden's location and the nature of the ground, landslides can affect some areas. The MSB provides general stability mapping for areas susceptible to landslides. The maps show which areas can be affected and which areas are in need of detailed geotechnical surveys.

Areas where consequences of a storm can be serious, the government grants 40 million Swedish kronor per year for preventions.[ when? ] Municipalities that have preventive measures can apply for subsidy from these allocated funds. A municipality that has been affected by a natural emergency has the right to ask the state for compensation to cover the exceeding costs. [44] [ citation not found ]

Mitigation

EU Renewable Targets

Sweden met its EU member-agreed binding renewable 2020 target in 2012. [45]

2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference

At the 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC) demanded: [46]

  1. Swedish government should confirm the given election promises of 40% emission decline by 2020
  2. International 5-years goals
  3. Binding for every country
  4. SEK4 billion Kr Swedish green fund for 2015–2018
  5. Actively aim concrete agreement text already in Lima 2014

181 students took initiative to work in 2015 for two weeks to improve Swedish climate change carbon footprint in relation to green food, solar energy, bicycles, customs, consumption and wastes. [47]

Policy instruments

Sweden has applied policy instruments and measures for climate change mitigation since the 1980s. [48] The instruments used include economic instruments (such as CO2 tax, subsidies, penalties), legislation, voluntary agreements, and a dialogue between the state and business enterprise. The main instruments are described below:

Carbon dioxide tax instrument

In Sweden, there are so far three different taxes levied on energy products (mainly fossil fuels), namely energy tax, sulphur tax and CO2 tax. Energy taxation has been used as a policy instrument ever since the oil crisis of the 1970s to support renewable energy and nuclear power. Energy tax was reduced by half in 1991 during the tax reform, simultaneously with the introduction of a CO2 tax on fossil fuels, with exceptions on ethanol, methanol, other biofuels, peat and wastes.

Renewable energy certificate system

As one part of the Government's long-term energy policy to reduce GHG emissions, the Swedish government introduced a voluntary international system for trading "green certificates", i.e. the renewable energy certificate system (RECS). With effect from 1 May 2003, RECS intends to encourage and increase the proportion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources. This will be done by payment of a levy in proportion to certain fraction of their electricity during the year. For example, during the first year (2003), users will be required to buy 7.4 per cent of the electricity generated from renewable sources.

Renewable energy subsidies and continuous investment on R&D

Since 1991, Sweden started many programs to encourage the use of renewable energy and new technology development, e.g. Energy Policy program (Long and short-term programs that focus on ways to increase the supply of renewable electricity, to reduce electricity consumption, and to promote energy efficiency), Green Certificate Scheme (Generators using solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, wave or small hydro are awarded one certificate for each MWh produced, and all consumers are obliged to buy enough certificates to cover a set proportion of their use).

International collaboration and carbon trading systems

Sweden also shows its leadership in international cooperation and competence on the climate change issues. Sweden actively took part in some international climate policy programs, such as Prototype Carbon Funds (PCF) and Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)

Oil independence and phase-out targets

The government created a Commission on Oil Independence (Kommissionen för att bryta oljeberoendet i Sverige till år 2020) and in 2006 it proposed the following targets for 2020:

  • Consumption of oil in road transport to be reduced by 40–50%
  • Consumption of oil in industry to be cut by 25–40%
  • Heating buildings with oil, a practice already cut by 70% since the 1973 oil crisis, should be phased out
  • Overall, energy should be used 20% more efficiently

Legislation

A Climate Act that targets zero net greenhouse gas emissions by 2045 was agreed upon by Swedish parliament in June 2017, making Sweden the first country with a legally binding carbon neutrality target. [49] The legislation has been in force since January 1, 2018. [50] After 2045 negative net emissions are targeted. The scope includes compensation projects abroad and emissions trading, but excludes aviation emissions. [51]

The Swedish government published a new plan on 17 December 2019 with 132 actions. Climate law has been in place since 2017. Sweden's goal is to reduce greenhouse gases 85% from the 1990 level by 2045. The 2019 plan outlines specific targeted reductions for aviation and sea travel. The plan includes a carbon tax, tax reform that supports climate and environment goals, a green tax, a climate LCA for buildings in 2022, the requirement that all electricity, heating and transport must be carbon zero in 2045, and promotes private renewable energy projects to make them easier and cheaper. The short-term goal is to reduce emissions from transport sector including aviation within Sweden at least 70% by 2030. Alternatives to private cars in cities are considered. A new price system for collective traffic will be introduced latest in 2022. [52] [53] [54]

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement is a legally international agreement adopted at the COP 21, its main goal is to limit global warming to below 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels. [55] It was ratified by the Swedish parliament on October 16, 2016. [56] The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC's) are the plans to fight climate change adapted for each country. [57] Every party in the agreement has different goals based on its own historical climate records and the country's circumstances.

In the case for member countries of the European Union the goals are very similar and the European Union work with a common strategy within the Paris Agreement. [58]

Society and culture

Public participation

Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg, who inspired the global School Strike for Climate. Greta Thunberg 4.jpg
Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg, who inspired the global School Strike for Climate.

Public participation is quite important in addressing climate change and its effects and developing adequate responses. Without the support of the public, it is impossible to implement a new policy instrument successfully. For example, one cannot anticipate that bio ethanol and bio diesel could be widely consumed without support and understanding from the general population. Therefore, information to raise the public's level of knowledge concerning the climate issue is necessary.[ citation needed ]

One public initiative, hosted by the KTH Royal Institute of Technology, is the Viable Cities program, which works with nine Swedish cities, including Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö, to support becoming carbon neutral and sustainable by 2030. The initiative, called Climate Neutral Cities 2030, will include 20 Swedish cities by the end of 2021. A new instrument in Viable Cities work is Climate City Contract 2030. It was signed by the top political leadership of the nine municipalities, by the Directors-General of the government agencies Vinnova, the Swedish Energy Agency, Formas and the Swedish Agency for Growth and by Viable Cities in December 2020. Viable Cities' Chief Storyteller is tasked with increasing public participation by developing effective forms of climate communication that promote public engagement. [59] [60]

Public perception of climate change

A 2002 survey showed that over 95% of respondents said that the use of tax money for addressing climate change was either "Very important" or "Fairly important". A little over half of the respondents were willing to change the use of hot water, electricity consumption and travel arrangement in order to reduce the impact of climate change. A little under half did not want to decrease internal building temperatures as a means of reducing climate change impact. [61] A201

Forest owners

Forest owners and forestry professionals don't seem to be worried about climate change affecting forests in Sweden. For example, Forest owners in Kronoberg believe that climate change effects are distant and long-term. Stakeholders focus more on personal experience rather than results of how climate change will affect forests in the future. Another forest professional says that nothing they can do today can affect the changes that will happen in the future. [62]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100, significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions</span> Greenhouse gases emitted from human activities

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide, from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC, of which 484±20 GtC from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Norway</span>

Norway is a large energy producer, and one of the world's largest exporters of oil. Most of the electricity in the country is produced by hydroelectricity. Norway is one of the leading countries in the electrification of its transport sector, with the largest fleet of electric vehicles per capita in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</span> Climate changing gases from the North American country

The United States produced 5.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020, the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person. In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GHG, followed by the United States with 11%, then India with 6.6%. In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG, more than any other country. Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and, amongst the top eight emitters, is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy policy of China</span>

China is both the world's largest energy consumer and the largest industrial country, and ensuring adequate energy supply to sustain economic growth has been a core concern of the Chinese Government since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Since the country's industrialization in the 1960s, China is currently the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, and coal in China is a major cause of global warming. However, from 2010 to 2015 China reduced energy consumption per unit of GDP by 18%, and CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 20%. On a per-capita basis, China was only the world's 51st largest emitter of greenhouse gases in 2016. China is also the world's largest renewable energy producer, and the largest producer of hydroelectricity, solar power and wind power in the world. The energy policy of China is connected to its industrial policy, where the goals of China's industrial production dictate its energy demand managements.  

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by Australia</span> Release of gases from Australia which contribute to global warming

Greenhouse gas emissions by Australia totalled 533 million tonnes CO2-equivalent based on greenhouse gas national inventory report data for 2019; representing per capita CO2e emissions of 21 tons, three times the global average. Coal was responsible for 30% of emissions. The national Greenhouse Gas Inventory estimates for the year to March 2021 were 494.2 million tonnes, which is 27.8 million tonnes, or 5.3%, lower than the previous year. It is 20.8% lower than in 2005. According to the government, the result reflects the decrease in transport emissions due to COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, reduced fugitive emissions, and reductions in emissions from electricity; however, there were increased greenhouse gas emissions from the land and agriculture sectors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</span>

Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon, thereby removing it from the atmosphere. BECCS can theoretically be a "negative emissions technology" (NET), although its deployment at the scale considered by many governments and industries can "also pose major economic, technological, and social feasibility challenges; threaten food security and human rights; and risk overstepping multiple planetary boundaries, with potentially irreversible consequences". The carbon in the biomass comes from the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) which is extracted from the atmosphere by the biomass when it grows. Energy ("bioenergy") is extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels, etc.) as the biomass is utilized through combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis or other conversion methods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Switzerland</span>

Energy in Switzerland is transitioning towards sustainability, targeting net zero emissions by 2050 and a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Australia</span> Overview of energy in Australia

Energy in Australia is the production in Australia of energy and electricity, for consumption or export. Energy policy of Australia describes the politics of Australia as it relates to energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom</span> Overview of the greenhouse gas emissions by United Kingdom

In 2021, net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the United Kingdom (UK) were 427 million tonnes (Mt) carbon dioxide equivalent, 80% of which was carbon dioxide itself. Emissions increased by 5% in 2021 with the easing of COVID-19 restrictions, primarily due to the extra road transport. The UK has over time emitted about 3% of the world total human caused CO2, with a current rate under 1%, although the population is less than 1%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Finland</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Finland related to clime change

Climate change has far reaching impacts on the natural environment and people of Finland. Finland was among the top five greenhouse gas emitters in 2001, on a per capita basis. Emissions increased to 58.8 million tonnes in 2016. Finland needs to triple its current cuts to emissions in order to be carbon neutral by 2035. Finland relies on coal and peat for its energy, but plans to phase out coal by 2029. Finland has a target of carbon neutrality by the year 2035 without carbon credits. The policies include nature conservation, more investments in trains, changes in taxation and more sustainable wood burning. After 2035 Finland will be carbon negative, meaning soaking more carbon than emitting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Europe</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Europe related to climate change

Climate change has resulted in an increase in temperature of 2.3 °C (4.14 °F) (2022) in Europe compared to pre-industrial levels. Europe is the fastest warming continent in the world. Europe's climate is getting warmer due to anthropogenic activity. According to international climate experts, global temperature rise should not exceed 2 °C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of climate change; without reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, this could happen before 2050. Climate change has implications for all regions of Europe, with the extent and nature of impacts varying across the continent.

The climate of Greece is changing by way of increased drought, flooding, wildfires and sea level rise. These extreme weather conditions are likely to become more frequent and as a result landscapes and biodiversity will be affected. Climate change will also cause human activities such as land-use change, urbanisation and soil degradation to further affect Greek's ecosystems. Ecosystems in Greece are already at their tipping point, close to their environmental limits. Policies and laws have been put in place by the Greek government to try to manage these issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by China</span> Emissions of gases harmful to the climate from China

China's greenhouse gas emissions are the largest of any country in the world both in production and consumption terms, and stem mainly from coal burning, including coal power, coal mining, and blast furnaces producing iron and steel. When measuring production-based emissions, China emitted over 14 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2eq of greenhouse gases in 2019, 27% of the world total. When measuring in consumption-based terms, which adds emissions associated with imported goods and extracts those associated with exported goods, China accounts for 13 gigatonnes (Gt) or 25% of global emissions. According to the Carbon Majors Database, Chinese state coal production alone accounts for 14% of historic global emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the Netherlands</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the Netherlands related to climate change

The Netherlands is already affected by climate change. The average temperature in the Netherlands rose by more than 2 °C from 1901 to 2020. Climate change has resulted in increased frequency of droughts and heatwaves. Because significant portions of the Netherlands have been reclaimed from the sea or otherwise are very near sea level, the Netherlands is very vulnerable to sea level rise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World energy supply and consumption</span> Global production and usage of energy

World energy supply and consumption refers to the global supply of energy resources and its consumption. The system of global energy supply consists of the energy development, refinement, and trade of energy. Energy supplies may exist in various forms such as raw resources or more processed and refined forms of energy. The raw energy resources include for example coal, unprocessed oil & gas, uranium. In comparison, the refined forms of energy include for example refined oil that becomes fuel and electricity. Energy resources may be used in various different ways, depending on the specific resource, and intended end use. Energy production and consumption play a significant role in the global economy. It is needed in industry and global transportation. The total energy supply chain, from production to final consumption, involves many activities that cause a loss of useful energy.

References

  1. ↑ Weart, Spencer (2008). "The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect". The Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
  2. ↑ "Energifrågan - Uppslagsverk - NE.se". www.ne.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 9 February 2023.
  3. 1 2 Tamanini, Jeremy; Dual Citizen LLC (September 2016). Global Green Economy Index 2016. Dual Citizen LLC.
  4. 1 2 Allerup, Jonas. "Sweden's Climate Act and Climate Policy Framework". Swedishepa.se. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
  5. ↑ "Climate indicator - Temperature". www.smhi.se. 28 October 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "SOU 2007:60 Sweden facing climate change – threats and opportunities". www.government.se.
  7. ↑ "Plan your home preparedness". www.msb.se. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  8. ↑ "The flood portal". gisapp.msb.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  9. ↑ Simon, Frédéric (21 April 2020). "Sweden adds name to growing list of coal-free states in Europe". Euractive. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
  10. ↑ "ENERGY USE IN SWEDEN". Sweden.se. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
  11. ↑ Burck, Jan; Hagen, Ursula; Marten, Franziska; Höhne, Niklas; Bals, Christoph. "The Climate Change Performance Index: Results 2019". Germanwatch, Bonn. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  12. 1 2 Crippa, M.; Oreggioni, G.; Guizzardi, D.; et al., eds. (2019). "Fossil CO2 and GHG emissions of all world countries - 2019 Report, EUR 29849 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2019". Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  13. ↑ World carbon dioxide emissions data by country: China speeds ahead of the rest Guardian 31 January 2011
  14. ↑ "WRI Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (registration required to access data)".
  15. ↑ Koldioxidutsläpp från myndigheters tjänsteresor och transporter De sammanlagda utsläppen av koldioxid från Sveriges myndigheters tjänsteresor och transporter ökar igen och utsläpp från maskiner och övriga fordon står för den största ökningen. Även resorna med flyg har ökat Naturvardsverket 10.6.2019
  16. ↑ KI:s flygresor stor miljöbov – ändrade reseregler ska få ner utsläppen SVT 23.10.2019
  17. ↑ Minskade utsläpp från vägtrafiken 2019
  18. ↑ Flygresandet till och från Sveriges större flygplatser minskade med fyra procent under fjolåret jämfört med rekordåret 2018. Flygresandet till och från Sveriges större flygplatser minskade med fyra procent under fjolåret jämfört med rekordåret 2018. DI 10 januari 2020 + SVT
  19. ↑ Naturvårdsverkets nya beräkning: Flyget lika stor klimatbov som personbilar 31 maj 2019
  20. ↑ Växthusgasutsläpp från den svenska befolkningens flygresor
  21. ↑ 8 900 kronor i skatt på Thailandsresa Swedish TV News, 2 June 2019
  22. ↑ Measuring greenhouse gas emissions from international air travel of a country’s residents methodological development and application for Sweden Jörgen Larsson, Anneli Kamba, Jonas Nässéna and Jonas Åkermanb, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 72: 137-144
  23. ↑ Climate footprint from Swedish residents’ air travel Anneli Kamb and Jörgen Larsson Chalmers Göteborg, February 2019
  24. 1 2 "Verified emissions 2018". European Union emissions trading system (EU ETS). Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  25. ↑ "Norway to sell remaining SAS airline stake". The Local. 27 June 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  26. ↑ "Lulekraft" (in Swedish). Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  27. ↑ "Slitefabriken" (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 10 July 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  28. 1 2 "LKAB adds MSEK 113 to SSAB" (in Swedish). Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  29. ↑ "Borealis unit in Stenungsund" (in Swedish). Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  30. ↑ "Facts about Stockholm Exergi" (in Swedish). Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  31. ↑ "About LKAB" . Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  32. ↑ Hausfather, Zeke; Peters, Glen (29 January 2020). "Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading". Nature. 577 (7792): 618–20. Bibcode:2020Natur.577..618H. doi: 10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3 . PMID   31996825.
  33. ↑ Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam; Koven, Charlie; Leshyk, Victor; Lawrence, David; Loranty, Michael M.; Mauritz, Marguerite; Olefeldt, David; Natali, Susan; Rodenhizer, Heidi; Salmon, Verity; Schädel, Christina; Strauss, Jens; Treat, Claire; Turetsky, Merritt (2022). "Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 47: 343–371. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 . Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement...
  34. ↑ Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022). "Explainer: IPCC Scenarios". Cosmos . Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023. "The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C.
  35. ↑ Extremvärme allt vanligare i världen Swedish TV News 18 July 2018
  36. ↑ Flera skogsbränder i landet Swedish TV News 18 July 2018
  37. ↑ "Stormen Per – två år efter Gudrun". Archived from the original on 29 January 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  38. ↑ Storm Per Archived 8 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine 2007
  39. 1 2 "Hälso- och sjukvården bör förbereda sig för ändrat klimat". www.lakartidningen.se (in Swedish). April 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  40. ↑ Jaenson, Thomas GT (1985). Medicinsk entomologi. Liber. ISBN   91-40-05112-9.
  41. ↑ Jarsjö, Jerker; Andersson-Sköld, Yvonne; Fröberg, Mats; Pietroń, Jan; Borgström, Robin; Löv, Åsa; Kleja, Dan B. (10 April 2020). "Projecting impacts of climate change on metal mobilization at contaminated sites: Controls by the groundwater level". Science of the Total Environment. 712: 135560. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.712m5560J. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135560 . ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   32050393. S2CID   209725183.
  42. ↑ Campana, P. E.; Zhang, J.; Yao, T.; Andersson, S.; Landelius, T.; Melton, F.; Yan, J. (1 October 2018). "Managing agricultural drought in Sweden using a novel spatially-explicit model from the perspective of water-food-energy nexus". Journal of Cleaner Production. 197: 1382–1393. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.096. ISSN   0959-6526. S2CID   158754545.
  43. ↑ Lake, Iain R.; Jones, Natalia R.; Agnew, Maureen; Goodess, Clare M.; Giorgi, Filippo; Hamaoui, -Laguel Lynda; Semenov, Mikhail A.; Solomon, Fabien; Storkey, Jonathan; Vautard, Robert; Epstein, Michelle M. (March 2017). "Environmental Health Perspectives – Climate Change and Future Pollen Allergy in Europe". Environmental Health Perspectives. 125 (3): 385–391. doi:10.1289/EHP173. PMC   5332176 . PMID   27557093 . Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  44. 1 2 energimyndigheten.a-w2m.se https://energimyndigheten.a-w2m.se/ResourceComment.mvc?resourceId=2347 . Retrieved 16 February 2021.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  45. ↑ Renewables 2014 Global Status Report, page 102
  46. ↑ Dags för Sverige att visa ledarskap för klimatet 1 December 2014
  47. ↑ Berghs hjälper Naturskyddsföreningen att klimatmaxa Dags för Sverige att visa ledarskap för klimatet The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation 4 December 2014
  48. ↑ "Sweden in the forefront for a green society". Archived from the original on 10 July 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  49. ↑ "Which countries have a legally-binding net-zero emissions target?".
  50. ↑ "As of today, Sweden has a new Climate Act!". January 2018.
  51. ↑ "The climate policy framework". 20 September 2017.
  52. ↑ Lövin om nya klimatplanen: Ambitiös men når inte målen SVT 17 December 2019
  53. ↑ En samlad politik för klimatet Government 17 December 2019
  54. ↑ Klimatpolitiska handlingsplanen – Fakta-PM Government 17 December 2019
  55. ↑ United Nations, United Nations Climate Change. "The Paris Agreement". unfccc.int. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  56. ↑ Godkännande av klimatavtalet från Paris, propositions of the 2016-2017 legislative session of the Riksdag (in Swedish), Signatory: Stefan Löfven, Isabella Lövin, 22 September 2016, Wikidata   Q98121026 {{citation}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  57. ↑ "NDC spotlight". UNFCCC. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
  58. ↑ Nationally determined contributions European Union. Updated submission UNFCCC. 2020-12-17. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
  59. ↑ "Connecting the future to our cities". Viable Cities. 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  60. ↑ O'Sullivan, Feargus (11 November 2019). "To Survive Climate Change, We'll Need a Better Story". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  61. ↑ Boman, Mattias; Leif Mattsson (2008). "A note on attitudes and knowledge concerning environmental issues in Sweden". Journal of Environmental Management. 86 (3). Elsevier: 575–579. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.12.041. PMID   17303317.
  62. ↑ "Learning about adaptation among forestry stakeholders" (PDF). Stockholm Environment Institute.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.