Biofuel in Sweden

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Bioheating plant in Skelleftea. FIL2938.JPG
Bioheating plant in Skellefteå.
Energy use by source in Sweden 1970-2012. Energy Use by Source, Sweden.png
Energy use by source in Sweden 1970–2012.

Biofuels are renewable fuels [1] that are produced by living organisms (biomass [1] ). Biofuels [2] can be solid, gaseous or liquid, which comes in two forms: ethanol and biodiesel and often replace fossil fuels. Many countries now use biofuels [2] as energy sources, including Sweden. Sweden has one of the highest usages of biofuel in all of Europe, at 32%, primarily due to the widespread commitment to E85, bioheating and bioelectricity.

Contents

Sweden's energy usage is divided into three sectors: housing and services, industry, and transport and is used in three different ways: to produce heating, electricity and vehicle fuels. [3] In 2014 Sweden has used 555 TWh of energy, 130 of which came from biofuels. [4]

Increased biofuel usage is the main reason why Sweden has managed to decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 25% between 1990 and 2014. [5]

History

Biofuel usage in Sweden has been increasing since 1970, growing from around 43 TWh in 1970 to 127 TWh in 2009. This increase is usually linked to the heavy expansion of biomass based district heating in 1980s. [6] The oil crisis between 1973 and 1979 has stimulated the transition from oil to other energy sources such as peat and biomass. Swedish government created financial incentives for transitioning from fossil fuels to biofuels. [7] Simultaneously the wood related industries were growing, using increasing amounts of wood as fuel and providing black liquor to the industry as bi-product. Finally, taxation of other energy sources, has contributed to the increase of biofuel usage, as taxes on fossil fuels have increased since 1990. [6] One of the examples is carbon dioxide tax, introduced in 1991, as a measure to reduce Sweden's environmental impact. Same year a three party agreement was signed to invest 950 million Swedish Krona in bioheat facilities. [7]

Bioenergy Sources

Wood Fuels

Use of Biomass by Fuel Category in Sweden, 2005-2014 Biomass By Fuel Category, Sweden.png
Use of Biomass by Fuel Category in Sweden, 2005-2014

The forestry sector, which uses various forms of wood, makes up 90% of the biomass [2] in Sweden. This includes parts of trees that cannot be used for timber or paper production. Recycled wood is considered biofuel too. [8] The other 10% of biomass comes from waste, industry bi-products, biogas and farmable fuels. [9]

Waste

Only combustible waste, such as cardboard, plastic and biological material, is counted as biofuel. It can be burned to produce energy, while organic matter can be composted to produce rich soil or used for biogas production. Most of the waste in Sweden comes from households, while a smaller part is provided by the industry. This majority of this bioenergy source goes to combustion plants and is being used for the district heating. A smaller part, only sorted organic matter, is decomposed in anaerobic or aerobic conditions to produce biogas or compost. The biological waste is primarily responsibility of the local municipality. [10]

On 1 January 2002, Sweden has enforced a law to make the sorting of combustible waste mandatory. It has been made illegal to deposit unsorted combustible waste, with materials that can not be burned. [7]

Industrial By-Products

A lot of wood related industries create bi-products. Forest industry uses its own residual products, such as chips, bark etc. Pulp industry burns its by-products, one of which is black liquor, to create steam to bleach paper and produce electricity. [11]

Biogas

Biogas, like natural gas, mostly consists of methane. It is produced in anaerobic conditions when organic material is being broken down by microorganisms. Food waste from households, restaurants, food industry, waste from agriculture and sewage material is used in the production. [12]

In 2015, Sweden produced over 1.9 TWh of biogas in 282 production plants. The majority of biogas is used as vehicle fuel. The upgraded biogas is pumped into existing gas networks in areas of Bjuv, Falkenberg, Göteborg, Helsingborg, Laholm, Lidingö, Lund, Malmö, Stockholm and Trelleborg. [12]

Farmable Fuels

Farmable fuels are intentionally grown plants, in most cases monocultures. Farm land is used to grow fast growing crops, such as flax and hemp, and forests, mostly salix, which can be burned, used to produce biogas, ethanol, biodiesel or other types of biofuel. [13]

Types of Biofuel

Wood Pellets Wood pellets-small huddle PNrdeg0108.jpg
Wood Pellets

There can be three different types of energy carriers produced from biomass: solid fuels (wood, briquettes, pellets, charcoal etc.), liquid fuels (methanol, ethanol, synthetic gasoline, biodiesel), gasses (biogas, hydrogen, syngas). Technically solid fuels can be made to be high-energy dense, hence Sweden produces biofuels mostly in solid form. [14]

Uses of Biofuel

Bioheat

Use of biomass per sector, in Sweden, 1983-2013. Use of Biomass per Sector.png
Use of biomass per sector, in Sweden, 1983–2013.

Producing heat is the most common use of biomass in Sweden, more than half of indoor heating is produced this way. Biomass is used in both large-scale district heating and small-scale direct use in boilers; about 90% of Swedish houses are heated by district heating. This type of heating can be combined with electricity production to optimize energy use. [15] Even though all types of biomass are being used for bioheating, this sector is dominated by wood fuels. [16]

Biopower

Biopower is the electricity produced from biomass. It is the fourth largest electricity source in Sweden, corresponding to 7% of electricity production. [17] In 2016 there were 209 electricity plants and 20 were being constructed. [18] On average, biopower production in Sweden is estimated to be 3,900 hours of the total 8,760 hours per year, with a potential to increase to 8,000 hours, corresponding to 35TWh. [18]

Transportation

The percentages of different fuels used for transportation. Fuels used in transportation for Sweden 2016.png
The percentages of different fuels used for transportation.

Sweden has committed to using more cars that require biofuels, [1] much due to the fact that the Swedish parliament has decided that Sweden should have a fossil free vehicle fleet. [19] However, it was reported in 2010 that only 4% of the biofuels [2] are being used within Sweden for transportation purposes. By people buying cars that run on ethanol, more E85 stations are now being utilized. By replacing cars that required ethanol, [19] less petrol [19] and diesel [19] are being used, which helps the environment. The goal is now to reduce emissions from transport by 70% by 2030 and then completely switch to fossil free traffic. According to Svebio.se, [19] this can be accomplished with a combination of improved efficiency electrification and fuel switching from fossil fuels [20] to biofuels. [2]

History of Transportation

ED95 Bus in Sweden running on a modified diesel engine.(courtesy www.greenfleet.info) . E85bus.jpg
ED95 Bus in Sweden running on a modified diesel engine.(courtesy www.greenfleet.info) .

Ethanol-powered ED95 buses were introduced in 1986 on a trial basis as the fuel for two buses in Örnsköldsvik, and by 1989 30 ethanol-operated buses were in service in Stockholm. SEKAB provided the fuel, called ED95, consists of a blend of 95% ethanol and 5% ignition improver and it is used in modified diesel engines where high compression is used to ignite the fuel. [21] [22] Other countries have now this technology on trial under the auspicies of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST) project, which is coordinated by the city of Stockholm. [21]

Flexible-fuel vehicles were introduced in Sweden as a demonstration test in 1994, when three Ford Taurus were imported to show the technology existed. Because of the existing interest, a project was started in 1995 with 50 Ford Taurus E85 flexifuel in different parts of Sweden: Umeå, Örnsköldsvik, Härnösand, Stockholm, Karlstad, Linköping, and Växjö. Between 1997 and 1998 an additional 300 Taurus were imported, and the number of E85 fueling grew to 40. [23] Then in 1998 the city of Stockholm placed an order for 2,000 of FFVs for any car manufacturer willing to produce them. The objective was to jump-start the FFV industry in Sweden. The two domestic car makers Volvo Group and Saab AB refused to participate arguing there were not in place any ethanol filling stations. However, Ford Motor Company took the offer and began importing the flexifuel version of its Focus model, delivering the first cars in 2001, and selling more than 15,000 FFV Focus by 2005, then representing an 80% market share of the flexifuel market. [24] In 2005 both Volvo and Saab introduced to the Swedish market their flexifuel models, and to the European market in the following years.

Flexible Vehicles

Saab 9-3 SportComi BioPower, an E85 flexifuel model introduced by Saab in the Swedish market in 2007. Saab 9-3 SportCombi 1.8t BioPower Facelift front.JPG
Saab 9-3 SportComi BioPower, an E85 flexifuel model introduced by Saab in the Swedish market in 2007.

Sweden has achieved the largest E85 flexible-fuel vehicle fleet in Europe, with a sharp growth from 717 sold vehicles in 2001 to 243,136 by December 2014. [25] [26] [27] [24] Also, Sweden has the largest ethanol bus fleet in the world, with over 600 buses running on ED95, mainly in Stockholm [28] [21] [29] Dozens of municipalities have started producing biogas from sewage. [30] At the end of 2009 there were 23,000 gas vehicles and 104 public filling stations. [31]

The recent and accelerated growth of the Swedish fleet of E85 flexifuel vehicles is the result of the National Climate Policy in Global Cooperation Bill passed in 2005, which not only ratified the Kyoto Protocol but also sought to meet the 2003 EU Biofuels Directive regarding targets for use of biofuels, and also led to the 2006 government's commitment to eliminate oil imports by 2020, [24] [32] with the support of BIL Sweden, the national association for the automobile industry.

Current Situation

Reduction mandate of greenhouse emissions from fossil fuels in Sweden by means of biofuel mixtures [33] [34]
YearGasolineDiesel Jet kerosene
20204,2 %21 %-
20216,0 % (1 Aug)26 % (1 Aug)0,8 % (1 July)
20227,8 %30,5 %1,7 %
202310,1 %
7,8 %**		35 %
30,5 %**		2,6 %
202412,5 %*40 %*3,5 %
202515,5 %*45 %*4,5 %
202619 %*50 %*7,2 %
202722 %*54 %*10,8 %
202824 %*58 %*15,3 %
202926 %*62 %*20,7 %
203028 %*66 %*27,0 %
*) Reduced reduction to the EU minimum level (6 percent for petrol and diesel) is suggested by the Kristersson Cabinet. [35]
**)Further reduction was paused during 2023 based on a bill by the Andersson Cabinet.

During 2004 the government passed a law that said all bigger Swedish fuel stations were required to provide an alternative fuel option. From 2009 all small gas stations, that sell more than 1,000 m3 per year, have to provide this as well. The lower cost of building a station for ethanol compared with a station for petroleum makes it very common to see gas stations that sell ethanol.

One fifth of cars in Stockholm can run on alternative fuels, mostly ethanol fuel. [36] As of December 2007, carmakers that offer ethanol-powered vehicles in Sweden are SAAB, Volvo, VW, Koenigsegg, Skoda, SEAT, Citroen, Peugeot, Renault and Ford. [37]

By 2010, SL [38] had become one the world's largest fleet of renewable fuel buses. Out of the 2000 buses operated, there are 400 ethanol buses and 100 biogas buses.

Sales of E85 fuel and E85 cars decreased sharply between 2014 and 2015 due to lower price of fossil fuel. The Swedish government has decreased the biofuel tax. [39]

Taxation and Policies

General energy and environmental taxes in Sweden, from 1 January 2016. General energy and environmental taxes, from 1 January 2016.png
General energy and environmental taxes in Sweden, from 1 January 2016.

Taxation

In 1991 Sweden's energy tax system was modified, with the introduction of a carbon dioxide tax, a reduction in the general energy tax, a tax on sulphur emissions and various value-added taxes on electricity and fuels. The present tax structure compromises three elements: an energy tax, a carbon dioxide tax and a sulphur tax. The energy tax and carbon dioxide tax are not levied on biofuels. [40]

The Swedish government has a policy, which aims at the reduction of the use of fossil fuels and the promotion of the use of renewable energy sources such as biofuels. This is done by taxation and administrative measures. The most important policy measure for biofuels in Sweden is that biofuels are exempt from energy taxes, environmental taxes and fees. The tax exemptions for biofuels are extended until 2018. [41]

Besides these direct energy taxations, the production and use of biofuels is promoted in an indirect way by green taxes. These fiscal measures seem to have a very positive effect on the production and use of biofuels. There are no subsidies provided for the use of biofuels in Sweden.

Policies

Sweden's policies on biofuels are part of the more general policies on energy and environment. The key actors in deciding policy are the Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communication as well as the Ministry of Education and Research. Policy support is provided by The Swedish Energy Agency and by Vinnova. Biofuels became prominent in the political agenda in Sweden after 2000. [42]

The Pump Act that came into force in 2005 also improved opportunities to fill up with E85. The law requires all filling stations that sell more than a certain amount of petrol and diesel to also supply a renewable fuel. In 2008 a government grant was provided to help meet the costs of infrastructure and other costs for biofuels other than ethanol. [43]

Vehicle Fuel Taxation

In Sweden biofuels were exempted of both, the CO2 and energy taxes until 2009, resulting in a 30% price reduction at the pump of E85 fuel over gasoline and 40% for biodiesel. Furthermore, other demand side incentives for flexifuel vehicle owners include a SEK 10,000 (USD 1,300 as of May, 2009) bonus to buyers of FFVs, exemption from the Stockholm congestion tax, up to 20% discount on auto insurance, free parking spaces in most of the largest cities, lower annual registration taxes, and a 20% tax reduction for flexifuel company cars. Also, a part of the program, the Swedish Government ruled that 25% of their vehicle purchases (excluding police, fire and ambulance vehicles) must be alternative fuel vehicles. [24] [32] [44] By the first months of 2008, this package of incentives resulted in sales of flexible-fuel cars representing 25% of new car sales. [24]

Since 2005 the gasoline fulling stations, which sell more than 3 million liters of fuel a year are required to sell at least one type of biofuel, resulting in more than 1,200 gas stations selling E85 by August 2008. [24] [32] Despite all the sharp growth of E85 flexifuel cars, by 2007 they represented just 2% of the 4 million Swedish vehicle fleet. [45] In addition, this law also mandated all new filling stations to offer alternative fuels, and stations with an annual volume of more than 1 million liters are required to have an alternative fuel pump by 31 December 2009. Therefore, the number of E85 pumps is expected to reach by 2009 nearly 60% of Sweden's 4,000 filling stations. [44]

Environmental Impacts

The unsustainable extraction of forest resources, such as wood fuel, may lead to forest degradation and permanent loss of biodiversity. Plantations can have both positive and negative impacts on biodiversity, depending on the change in land use. Further, even when traditional biomass is harvested sustainably, wood fuel use may not be carbon neutral due to incomplete combustion – the idealized fuel cycle in which all carbon is converted to carbon dioxide is unrealistic. Also, poorly conducted wood fuel harvesting can have significant effects on water quality and quantity, leading to increased soil erosion and run-off. [46]

However, while combustion of biogas, like natural gas, produces carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas, the carbon in biogas comes from plant matter that fixed this carbon from atmospheric CO2. Thus, biogas production is carbon-neutral and does not add to greenhouse gas emissions. [47]

The assumption is that the replacement of fossil fuels with fuels generated from biomass would have significant and positive climate-change effects by generating lower levels of the greenhouse gasses that contribute to global warming. Biofuels are only one component of a range of alternatives for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gas balances are not positive for all feedstocks. Investment should be directed towards crops that have the highest positive greenhouse gas balances with the lowers environmental and social costs. [48]

Biofuel companies

Bioheat

Svensk Fjärrvärme is the main provider of district heating in Sweden. [49]

Biopower

Electricity production in Sweden is highly localized, increasing the supply reliability. To produce more environmentally friendly energy Sweden and Norway share electricity certification system, which increases revenues from renewable electricity production. [50]

Transportation

SEKAB is a major Nordic producer and importer of Bioethanol.

Chemrec develops black liquor gasification technology for second generation biofuels such as Biomethanol and BioDME. On January 26, 2011, the European Union's Directorate-General for Competition approved the Swedish Energy Agency's award of 500 million Swedish kronor (approx. €56M as at January 2011) toward the construction of a 3 billion Swedish kronor (approx. €335M) industrial scale experimental development biofuels plant at the Domsjö Fabriker biorefinery complex in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden, using Chemrec's black liquor gasification technology. [51]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biogas</span> Gases produced by decomposing organic matter

Biogas is a mixture of gases, primarily consisting of methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste, wastewater, and food waste. It is a renewable energy source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biofuel</span> Type of biological fuel produced from biomass from which energy is derived

Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Biofuel can be produced from plants or from agricultural, domestic or industrial biowaste. The climate change mitigation potential of biofuel varies considerably, from emission levels comparable to fossil fuels in some scenarios to negative emissions in others. Biofuels are mostly used for transportation, but can also be used for heating and electricity. Biofuels are regarded as a renewable energy source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethanol fuel</span> One type of biofuel

Ethanol fuel is fuel containing ethyl alcohol, the same type of alcohol as found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternative fuel</span> Fuels from sources other than fossil fuels

Alternative fuel, also known as non-conventional and advanced fuels, are fuels derived from sources other than fossil fuels. Some well-known alternative fuels include hydrogen, bio-diesel, bio-alcohol, refuse-derived fuel, chemically stored electricity, non-fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, propane and other biomass sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioenergy</span> Energy made from recently-living organisms

Bioenergy is energy made from biomass, which consists of recently living organisms, mainly plants. Types of biomass commonly used for bioenergy include wood, food crops such as corn, energy crops and waste from forests, yards, or farms. The IPCC defines bioenergy as a renewable form of energy. Bioenergy can either mitigate or increase greenhouse gas emissions. There is also agreement that local environmental impacts can be problematic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">E85</span> Fuel blend of 85% ethanol and 15% another hydrocarbon

E85 is an abbreviation typically referring to an ethanol fuel blend of 85% ethanol fuel and 15% gasoline or other hydrocarbon by volume.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flexible-fuel vehicle</span> Vehicle that runs on multiple fuels

A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in the same common tank. Modern flex-fuel engines are capable of burning any proportion of the resulting blend in the combustion chamber as fuel injection and spark timing are adjusted automatically according to the actual blend detected by a fuel composition sensor. This device is known as an oxygen sensor and it reads the oxygen levels in the stream of exhaust gasses, its signal enriching or leaning the fuel mixture going into the engine. Flex-fuel vehicles are distinguished from bi-fuel vehicles, where two fuels are stored in separate tanks and the engine runs on one fuel at a time, for example, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or hydrogen.

Renewable natural gas (RNG), also known as sustainable natural gas (SNG) or biomethane, is a biogas which has been upgraded to a quality similar to fossil natural gas and having a methane concentration of 90% or greater. By increasing the concentration of methane to a similar level as natural gas, it becomes possible to distribute the gas to customers via the existing gas grid and use in existing appliances. Renewable natural gas is a subset of synthetic natural gas or substitute natural gas (SNG).

The United States produces mainly biodiesel and ethanol fuel, which uses corn as the main feedstock. The US is the world's largest producer of ethanol, having produced nearly 16 billion gallons in 2017 alone. The United States, together with Brazil accounted for 85 percent of all ethanol production, with total world production of 27.05 billion gallons. Biodiesel is commercially available in most oilseed-producing states. As of 2005, it was somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel, though it is still commonly produced in relatively small quantities.

Renewable Fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources. Examples include: biofuels, Hydrogen fuel, and fully synthetic fuel produced from ambient carbon dioxide and water. This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas, LPG (propane), petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy. Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar. Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability, low contributions to the carbon cycle, and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases. The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternative fuel vehicle</span> Type of vehicle

An alternative fuel vehicle is a motor vehicle that runs on alternative fuel rather than traditional petroleum fuels. The term also refers to any technology powering an engine that does not solely involve petroleum. Because of a combination of factors, such as environmental concerns, high oil-prices and the potential for peak oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.

Biofuel is fuel that is produced from organic matter (biomass), including plant materials and animal waste. It is considered a renewable source of energy that can assist in reducing carbon emissions. The two main types of biofuel currently being produced in Australia are biodiesel and bioethanol, used as replacements for diesel and petrol (gasoline) respectively. As of 2017 Australia is a relatively small producer of biofuels, accounting for 0.2% of world bioethanol production and 0.1% of world biodiesel production.

Second-generation biofuels, also known as advanced biofuels, are fuels that can be manufactured from various types of non-food biomass. Biomass in this context means plant materials and animal waste used especially as a source of fuel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biofuels by region</span> Use of biofuel as energy source across the world

The use of biofuels varies by region. The world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil, United States, France, Sweden and Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport</span>

BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST) was a four-year project financially supported by the European Union for promoting the introduction and market penetration of bioethanol as a vehicle fuel, and the introduction and wider use of flexible-fuel vehicles and ethanol-powered vehicles on the world market. The project began in January 2006 and continued until the end of 2009, and had nine participating regions or cities in Europe, Brazil, and China.

The fleet of flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States is the second largest in the world after Brazil, and there were more than 21 million 85 flex-fuel vehicles registered in the country by the end of 2017. Despite the growing fleet of E85 flex-fuel vehicles, actual use of ethanol fuel is limited due to the lack of E85 refueling infrastructure and also because many North American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex-fuel vehicle. Flex-fuel vehicles are common in the Midwest, where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production. Also the U.S. government has been using flex-fuel vehicles for many years.

United States policy in regard to biofuels, such as ethanol fuel and biodiesel, began in the early 1990s as the government began looking more intensely at biofuels as a way to reduce dependence on foreign oil and increase the nation's overall sustainability. Since then, biofuel policies have been refined, focused on getting the most efficient fuels commercially available, creating fuels that can compete with petroleum-based fuels, and ensuring that the agricultural industry can support and sustain the use of biofuels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethanol fuel by country</span>

The world's top ethanol fuel producers in 2011 were the United States with 13.9 billion U.S. liquid gallons (bg) and Brazil with 5.6 bg, accounting together for 87.1% of world production of 22.36 billion US gallons. Strong incentives, coupled with other industry development initiatives, are giving rise to fledgling ethanol industries in countries such as Germany, Spain, France, Sweden, India, China, Thailand, Canada, Colombia, Australia, and some Central American countries.

Denmark is a leading country in wind energy production and wind turbine production. Wind power alone produced 47% of Denmark's electricity consumption in 2017, and is expected to increase its production by nearly 80% in the years to 2024.

Biofuels play a major part in the renewable energy strategy of Denmark. Denmark is using biofuel to achieve its target of using 100% renewable energy for all energy uses by 2050. Biofuels provide a large share of energy sources in Denmark when considering all sectors of energy demand. In conjunction with Denmark's highly developed renewable energy resources in other areas, biofuels are helping Denmark meet its ambitious renewable energy targets.

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  41. ↑ "Sweden". 4 September 2012.
  42. ↑ Hillman, K., Nilsson, M., Rickne, A., Magnusson, T., 2011. Fostering sustainable technologies: a framework for analysing the governance of innovation systems. Science and Public Policy 38, 403–415.
  43. ↑ "Our sustainable history".
  44. 1 2 Ford U.K (2008). "Projects across Europe: The Swedish example". Ford Motor Company. Archived from the original on 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2008-08-22.
  45. ↑ Brian Warshaw (April 2008). "Ethanol use increases in Sweden". Ethanol Producer Magazine. Archived from the original on 2008-10-27. Retrieved 2008-08-22.
  46. ↑ Johnson, F. X., Tella, P. V., Israilava, A., Takama, T., Diaz-Chavez, R., & Rosillo-Calle, F. (2010). What woodfuels can do to mitigate climate change.
  47. ↑ "Biogas - Frequently Asked Questions (Biogas FAQ)".
  48. ↑ The State of Food and Agriculture, Part I: Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities (2008), Chapter 5, Section Key messages, p.71
  49. ↑ "Svensk Fjarrvarme". www.svenskfjarrvarme.se. Archived from the original on 2010-08-20. Retrieved May 15, 2017.
  50. ↑ "Elcertifikatsystemet är ett marknadsbaserat stödsystem. Läs mer om systemet här". www.energimyndigheten.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 2017-05-15.
  51. ↑ EU press release IP/11/67 dated 26/11/2011
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