Oat

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Oat
Avena sativa L.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Pooideae
Genus: Avena
Species:
A. sativa
Binomial name
Avena sativa
L. (1753)

The oat (Avena sativa), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural, unlike other cereals and pseudocereals). Oats are used for human consumption as oatmeal, including as steel cut oats or rolled oats. Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol and reduced risk of human heart disease when consumed regularly. One of the most common uses of oats is as livestock feed; the crop can also be grown as groundcover and ploughed in as a green manure.

Contents

Origins

Phylogeny

Oat ancestry, showing how hexaploid species including the common oat Avena sativa derive from diploid and tetraploid species Oat ancestry.svg
Oat ancestry, showing how hexaploid species including the common oat Avena sativa derive from diploid and tetraploid species

Phylogenetic analysis using molecular DNA and morphological evidence places the oat genus Avena in the Pooideae subfamily, which includes the cereals wheat, barley, and rye; they are in the Triticeae tribe, while Avena is in the Poeae, along with grasses such as Briza and Agrostis . [1] The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the closely related minor crop – A. byzantina – is A. sterilis , a naturally hexaploid wild oat, one that has its DNA in six sets of chromosomes. Genetic evidence shows that the ancestral forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. [2] [3]

A 2018 analysis of maternal lineages of 25 Avena species by Yong-Bi Fu examined chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA. This showed that A. sativa's hexaploid AACCDD genome derives from three diploid oat species (each with two sets of chromosomes), namely the CC A. ventricosa, the AA A. canariensis, and the AA A. longiglumis, along with two tetraploid oats (each with four sets of chromosomes), namely the AACC A. insularis and the AABB A. agadiriana. Tetraploids were formed as much as 10.6 mya, and hexaploids as much as 7.4 mya. [4]

Domestication

Genomic study by Jinsheng Nan and colleagues in 2023 suggests that the hulled oat A. sativa and the naked oat A. sativa var. nuda diverged some 51,200 years ago, long before domestication. This implies that the two varieties were domesticated independently. [5]

Oats are thought to have emerged as a secondary crop. This means that they are derived from what was considered a weed of the primary cereal domesticates such as wheat. They survived as a Vavilovian mimic by having grains that Neolithic people found hard to distinguish from the primary crop. [3]

Oats appear to have been cultivated before they were domesticated. A granary from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, some 11,400 to 11,200 years ago in the Jordan Valley in the Middle East contained a large number of wild barley and wild oat grains (120,000 seeds of wild oat, A. sterilis). This quantity could not have been collected from the wild, so the find implies intentional cultivation and harvesting of the undomesticated grain, thousands of years before oats were domesticated. Domesticated oat grains first appear in the archaeological record in Europe, far from the Middle East, less than 4,000 years ago. [6]

Description

The oat is a tall stout grass, a member of the Poaceae family; it grows to a height of some 1.8 metres (5.9 ft). The leaves are long, narrow, and pointed, and grow upwards; they can be some 15 to 40 centimetres (5.9 to 15.7 in) in length, and around 5 to 15 millimetres (0.20 to 0.59 in) in width. At the top of the stem, the plant branches into a loose cluster or panicle of spikelets. These contain the wind-pollinated flowers, which mature into the oat seeds or grains. [7] Botanically the grain is a caryopsis, as the wall of the fruit is fused on to the actual seed. Like other cereal grains, the caryopsis contains the outer husk or bran, the starchy food store or endosperm which occupies most of the seed, and the protein-rich germ which if planted in the soil can grow into a new plant. [8]

Production and trade

Oats production – 2022 [9]
CountryMillions of tonnes
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 5.2
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 4.5
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia 1.7
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland 1.5
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 1.3
Flag of Finland.svg  Finland 1.2
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 1.1
World26.4

In 2022, global production of oats was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada with 20% of the total and Russia with 17% (table). This compares to over 100 million tonnes for wheat, for example. [10] Global trade represents a modest percentage of production, less than 10%, most of the grain being consumed within producing countries. The main exporter is Canada, followed by Sweden and Finland; the US is the main importer. [11]

Oats futures are traded in US dollars in quantities of 5000 bushels on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in March, May, July, September, and December. [12]

Agronomy

Oats are annual plants best grown in temperate regions. They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of (and need for) rain than other cereals, such as wheat, rye or barley, so they are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe. [13]

Oats are sown in the spring or early summer in colder areas, as soon as the soil can be worked, for harvest in the autumn. An early start is crucial to good fields, as the plants go dormant in summer heat. In warmer areas, oats are sown in late summer or early fall, for harvest the following summer. Oats are cold-tolerant and are unaffected by late frosts or snow. [14]

Weeds, pests and diseases

Oat leaf infected with crown rust Puccinia coronata at Avena.jpg
Oat leaf infected with crown rust

The vigorous growth of oats tends to choke out most weeds. A few tall broadleaf weeds can create a problem, as they complicate harvest and reduce yields. These can be controlled with a modest application of a broadleaf herbicide while the weeds are still small. [15]

Oats are relatively free from diseases and pests. Nonetheless, they suffer from some leaf diseases, such as leaf rust, stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae), and crown rust (P. coronata var. avenae). [16]

Crown rust infection can greatly reduce photosynthesis and overall physiological activities of oat leaves, thereby reducing growth and crop yield. [17] [18]

Processing

Fully-processed porridge oats, ready to cook Oatmeal.jpg
Fully-processed porridge oats, ready to cook

Harvested oats go through multiple stages of milling. The first stage is cleaning, to remove seeds of other plants, stones and any other extraneous materials. Next is dehulling to remove the indigestible bran, leaving the seed or "groat". Heating denatures enzymes in the seed that would make it go sour or rancid; the grain is then dried to minimise the risk of spoilage by bacteria and fungi. There may follow numerous stages of cutting or grinding the grain, depending on which sort of product is required. For oatmeal (oat flour), the grain is ground to a specified fineness. For home use such as making porridge, oats are often rolled flat to make them quicker to cook. [19]

Oat flour can be ground for small scale use by pulsing rolled oats or old-fashioned (not quick) oats in a food processor or spice mill. [20]

Genomics

Genome

Avena sativa is an allohexaploid species with three ancestral genomes (2n=6x=42; AACCDD). [21] [22] [23] As a result, the genome is large (12.6 Gb, 1C-value=12.85) and complex. [24] [25] Cultivated hexaploid oat has a unique mosaic chromosome architecture that is the result of numerous translocations between the three subgenomes. [21] [26] These translocations may cause breeding barriers and incompatibilities when crossing varieties with different chromosomal architecture. Hence, oat breeding and the crossing of desired traits has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome assembly. In May 2022, a fully annotated reference genome sequence of Avena sativa was reported. [21] The AA subgenome is presumed to be derived from Avena longiglumis and the CCDD from the tetraploid Avena insularis. [21]

Genetics and breeding

Species of Avena can hybridize and genes introgressed from other "A" genome species have contributed many valuable traits, like resistance to oat crown rust. [27] [28] Pc98 is one such trait, introgressed from A. sterilis CAV 1979, conferring all stage resistance (ASR) against Pca. [29]

It is possible to hybridize oats with grasses in other genera, allowing plant breeders the ready introgression of traits. In contrast to wheat, oats sometimes retain chromosomes from maize or pearl millet after such crosses. These wide crosses are typically made to generate doubled haploid breeding material, where the rapid loss of the alien chromosomes from the unrelated pollen donor results in a plant with only a single set of chromosomes (a haploid). [30] [31] [32]

The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as a source for novel traits in oats, for example, research on oat-maize-addition lines has been used to map genes involved in C4 photosynthesis. To obtain Mendelian inheritance of these novel traits, radiation hybrid lines have been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed into the oat genome. This technique – which potentially transfers thousands of genes from a species that is distantly related – is not considered a GMO technique, according to the European Union definition, since sexual hybridization and radiation-induced introgression are explicitly excluded. [33]

A 2013 study applied simple sequence repeat and found five major groupings, namely commercial cultivars and four landrace groups. [34] [35]

Nutritive value

Oats
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,628 kJ (389 kcal)
66.3 g
Dietary fiber 11.6 g
Fat
6.9 g
Saturated 1.21 g
Monounsaturated 2.18 g
Polyunsaturated 2.54 g
16.9 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
64%
0.763 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
11%
0.139 mg
Niacin (B3)
6%
0.961 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
27%
1.349 mg
Vitamin B6
7%
0.12 mg
Folate (B9)
14%
56 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
4%
54 mg
Iron
28%
5 mg
Magnesium
42%
177 mg
Manganese
213%
4.9 mg
Phosphorus
42%
523 mg
Potassium
14%
429 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
36%
4 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
β-glucans (soluble fiber)  [36] 4 g
FoodData Central entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [37] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [38]

Oats contain diverse essential nutrients. In a 100 gram serving, oats provide 389 kilocalories (1,630  kJ ) and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese (233% DV) (table). Oats are 66% carbohydrates, including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans, 7% fat and 17% protein (table).

The established property of their cholesterol-lowering effects [39] has led to acceptance of oats as a health food. [40] Oat bran is the outer casing of the oat. Its daily consumption over weeks lowers LDL and total cholesterol, possibly reducing the risk of heart disease. [39] [41] One type of soluble fiber, beta-glucans, lowers cholesterol. [39] The United States Food and Drug Administration allows food companies to make health claims on food labels of foods that contain soluble fiber from whole oats, as long as the food provides 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving. Beta-glucans are indigestible polysaccharides in the cell walls of oat endosperm. [42]

Oats are the only cereal containing a globulin or legume-like protein, avenalin, as the major (80%) storage protein. [43]

Uses

As food

Oats have numerous uses in foods; most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, or ground into fine oat flour. Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes (which may be made with coarse steel-cut oats for a rougher texture), oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola. Oats are also used for production of milk substitutes ("oat milk"). [44] As of late 2020, the oat milk market became the second-largest among plant milks in the United States, following the leader, almond milk, but exceeding the sales of soy milk. [45] Oat bread often contains only a small proportion of oats alongside wheat or other cereals. [46]

In Britain, oats are sometimes used for brewing beer, such as oatmeal stout where a percentage of oats, often 30%, is added to the barley for the wort. [47] Oatmeal caudle, made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of Oliver Cromwell. [48] [49]

Animal feed

A commercially prepared grain mix for horses, with crimped maize, oats, and barley mixed with molasses and pelleted supplement GrainMix.jpg
A commercially prepared grain mix for horses, with crimped maize, oats, and barley mixed with molasses and pelleted supplement

Oats are commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required. The oat hull may be crushed ("rolled" or "crimped") for the horse to more easily digest the grain, [50] or may be fed whole. They may be given alone or as part of a blended food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a roller mill, burr mill, or hammermill. Oat forage is commonly used to feed all kinds of ruminants, as pasture, straw, hay or silage. [51]

Ground cover

Winter oats may be grown as an off-season groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer, or harvested in early summer. They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready. [52]

Other uses

Oat straw is prized by cattle and horse producers as bedding, due to its soft, relatively dust-free, and absorbent nature. [53] The straw can be used for making corn dollies. [54] Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw has been used to soften bath water. [55]

Celiac disease

Celiac (or coeliac) disease is a permanent autoimmune disease triggered by gluten proteins. [56] [57] [58] [59] It almost always occurs in genetically predisposed people, having a prevalence of about 1% in the developed world. [56] [60] [61] Oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and barley, requiring caution in the use of oats if people are sensitive to the gluten in those grains. [57] [58] [62] [63] Use of pure oats in a gluten-free diet offers improved nutritional value, [58] [64] but remains controversial because a small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats. [57] [65]

In human culture

In his 1755 Dictionary of the English Language, Samuel Johnson "famous[ly]" [66] defined oats as "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people." [66] The grain had been in low esteem since Roman times, when Pliny the Elder, believing that oats were "a diseased form of wheat", commented in his Natural History that the people of Germany made oat porridge. In 1521, the historian John Major recorded that wheat would not grow in the North of Britain, and that oaten bread was the food of the people of Wales, Northern England, and Scotland. Oats were so universal in Scotland that when a Scottish farmer planted a field of wheat near Edinburgh in 1727, the people of the city came out to see the unusual sight. [66]

"Oats and Beans and Barley Grow" is the first line of a traditional folksong (1380 in the Roud Folk Song Index), recorded in different forms from 1870. Similar songs are recorded from France, Canada, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy. [67]

Oats are associated with sexual intercourse, as in the idioms "sowing one's (wild) oats", meaning having many sexual partners in one's youth, [68] and "getting your oats", meaning having sex regularly. [69]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gluten</span> Group of cereal grain proteins

Gluten is a structural protein naturally found in certain cereal grains. The term gluten usually refers to a wheat grain's prolamins, specifically glutelin proteins, that naturally occur in many cereal grains, and which can trigger celiac disease in some people. The types of grains that contain gluten include all species of wheat, and barley, rye, and some cultivars of oat; moreover, cross hybrids of any of these cereal grains also contain gluten, e.g. triticale. Gluten makes up 75–85% of the total protein in bread wheat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat</span> Genus of grass cultivated for grain

Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum ; the most widely grown is common wheat. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BC. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a caryopsis, a type of fruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Millet</span> Group of grasses (food grain)

Millets are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rye</span> Species of grain

Rye is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from eastern and northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds, and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) which includes the cereals wheat and barley. Rye grain is used for bread, beer, rye whiskey, and animal fodder. In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle-ages, and rye crispbread remains a popular food in the region. Around half of world production is in Europe; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid, triticale, combines the qualities of the two parent crops and is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, the Roggenwolf is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coeliac disease</span> Autoimmune disorder that results in a reaction to gluten

Coeliac disease or celiac disease is a long-term autoimmune disorder, primarily affecting the small intestine, where individuals develop intolerance to gluten, present in foods such as wheat, rye and barley. Classic symptoms include gastrointestinal problems such as chronic diarrhoea, abdominal distention, malabsorption, loss of appetite, and among children failure to grow normally. Non-classic symptoms are more common, especially in people older than two years. There may be mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms, a wide number of symptoms involving any part of the body, or no obvious symptoms. Coeliac disease was first described in childhood; however, it may develop at any age. It is associated with other autoimmune diseases, such as Type 1 diabetes mellitus and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, among others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buckwheat</span> Species of flowering plant in the family Polygonaceae

Buckwheat or common buckwheat is a flowering plant in the knotweed family Polygonaceae cultivated for its grain-like seeds and as a cover crop. Buckwheat originated around the 6th millennium BCE in the region of what is now Yunnan Province in southwestern China. The name "buckwheat" is used for several other species, such as Fagopyrum tataricum, a domesticated food plant raised in Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breakfast cereal</span> Processed food made from grain

Breakfast cereal is a breakfast food made from processed cereal grains. It is traditionally eaten as part of breakfast, or a snack food, primarily in Western societies.

<i>Avena</i> Genus of grasses oat

Avena is a genus of Eurasian and African plants in the grass family. Collectively known as the oats, they include some species which have been cultivated for thousands of years as a food source for humans and livestock. They are widespread throughout Europe, Asia and northwest Africa. Several species have become naturalized in many parts of the world, and are regarded as invasive weeds where they compete with crop production. All oats have edible seeds, though they are small and hard to harvest in most species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emmer</span> Type of wheat

Emmer wheat or hulled wheat is a type of awned wheat. Emmer is a tetraploid. The domesticated types are Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum and T. t. conv. durum. The wild plant is called T. t. subsp. dicoccoides. The principal difference between the wild and the domestic forms is that the ripened seed head of the wild plant shatters and scatters the seed onto the ground, while in the domesticated emmer, the seed head remains intact, thus making it easier for humans to harvest the grain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Durum</span> Species of wheat used for food

Durum wheat, also called pasta wheat or macaroni wheat, is a tetraploid species of wheat. It is the second most cultivated species of wheat after common wheat, although it represents only 5% to 8% of global wheat production. It was developed by artificial selection of the domesticated emmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the Near East around 7000 BC, which developed a naked, free-threshing form. Like emmer, durum wheat is awned. It is the predominant wheat that grows in the Middle East.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gluten-free diet</span> Diet excluding proteins found in wheat, barley, and rye

A gluten-free diet (GFD) is a nutritional plan that strictly excludes gluten, which is a mixture of prolamin proteins found in wheat, as well as barley, rye, and oats. The inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet remains controversial, and may depend on the oat cultivar and the frequent cross-contamination with other gluten-containing cereals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spelt</span> Species of grain

Spelt, also known as dinkel wheat or hulled wheat, is a species of wheat that has been cultivated since approximately 5000 BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whole grain</span> Cereal containing endosperm, germ, and bran

A whole grain is a grain of any cereal and pseudocereal that contains the endosperm, germ, and bran, in contrast to refined grains, which retain only the endosperm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat allergy</span> Medical condition

Wheat allergy is an allergy to wheat which typically presents itself as a food allergy, but can also be a contact allergy resulting from occupational exposure. Like all allergies, wheat allergy involves immunoglobulin E and mast cell response. Typically the allergy is limited to the seed storage proteins of wheat. Some reactions are restricted to wheat proteins, while others can react across many varieties of seeds and other plant tissues. Wheat allergy is rare. Prevalence in adults was found to be 0.21% in a 2012 study in Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triticeae</span> Tribe of grasses

Triticeae is a botanical tribe within the subfamily Pooideae of grasses that includes genera with many domesticated species. Major crop genera found in this tribe include wheat, barley, and rye; crops in other genera include some for human consumption, and others used for animal feed or rangeland protection. Among the world's cultivated species, this tribe has some of the most complex genetic histories. An example is bread wheat, which contains the genomes of three species with only one being a wheat Triticum species. Seed storage proteins in the Triticeae are implicated in various food allergies and intolerances.

<i>Avena nuda</i> Species of grass

Avena nuda is a species of grass with edible seeds in the oat genus Avena.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gluten-related disorders</span> Set of diseases caused by gluten exposure

Gluten-related disorders is the term for the diseases triggered by gluten, including celiac disease (CD), non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS), gluten ataxia, dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) and wheat allergy. The umbrella category has also been referred to as gluten intolerance, though a multi-disciplinary physician-led study, based in part on the 2011 International Coeliac Disease Symposium, concluded that the use of this term should be avoided due to a lack of specificity.

Oat sensitivity represents a sensitivity to the proteins found in oats, Avena sativa. Sensitivity to oats can manifest as a result of allergy to oat seed storage proteins either inhaled or ingested. A more complex condition affects individuals who have gluten-sensitive enteropathy in which there is an autoimmune response to avenin, the glutinous protein in oats similar to the gluten within wheat. Sensitivity to oat foods can also result from their frequent contamination by wheat, barley, or rye particles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barley</span> Cereal grain

Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains; it was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 BC, giving it nonshattering spikelets and making it much easier to harvest. Its use then spread throughout Eurasia by 2000 BC. Barley prefers relatively low temperatures to grow, and well-drained soil. It is relatively tolerant of drought and soil salinity, but is less winter-hardy than wheat or rye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient grains</span> Small, hard, dry seeds used as food

Ancient grains is a marketing term used to describe a category of grains and pseudocereals that are purported to have been minimally changed by selective breeding over recent millennia, as opposed to more widespread cereals such as corn, rice and modern varieties of wheat, which are the product of thousands of years of selective breeding. Ancient grains are often marketed as being more nutritious than modern grains, though their health benefits over modern varieties have been disputed by some nutritionists.

References

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