Pongamia

Last updated

Pongamia
Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) near Hyderabad W IMG 7633.jpg
Flowers
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Tribe: Millettieae
Genus: Pongamia
Adans. (1763), nom. cons.
Species:
P. pinnata
Binomial name
Pongamia pinnata
(L.) Pierre (1898)
Varieties [1]
  • Pongamia pinnata var. minor(Benth.) Domin
  • Pongamia pinnata var. pinnata
Synonyms [1]
List
    • Cajum pinnatum(L.) Kuntze (1891)
    • Cytisus pinnatusL. (1753)
    • Galedupa pinnata(L.) Taub. (1894)
    • Millettia pinnata(L.) Panigrahi (1989)
    • Pongamia glabraVent. (1803), nom. superfl.
    • Pongamia pinnata var. typicaDomin (1926), not validly publ.
    • Derris indica(Lam.) Bennet

Pongamia pinnata is a species of tree in the pea family, Fabaceae, native to eastern and tropical Asia, Australia, and the Pacific islands. [1] [2] [3] [4] It is the sole species in genus Pongamia. [5] It is often known by the synonym Millettia pinnata. Its common names include Indian beech and Pongame oiltree. [3] [4]

Contents

Description

Pongamia pinnata is a legume tree that grows to about 15–25 m (50–80 ft) in height with a large canopy that spreads equally wide and creates dense shade. It may be deciduous for short periods. It has a straight or crooked trunk, 50–80 cm (20–30 in) in diameter, with grey-brown bark, which is smooth or vertically fissured. Its wood is white colored. [6] Branches are glabrous with pale stipulate scars. The imparipinnate leaves of the tree alternate and are short-stalked, rounded, or cuneate at the base, ovate or oblong along the length, obtuse-acuminate at the apex, and not toothed on the edges. They are a soft, shiny burgundy when young, and mature to a glossy, deep green as the season progresses, with prominent veins underneath. [7]

Flowering generally starts after 3–4 years with small clusters of white, purple, and pink flowers blossoming throughout the year. [8] The raceme-like inflorescences bear two to four flowers that are strongly fragrant and grow to be 15–18 mm (0.59–0.71 in) long. The calyx of the flowers is bell-shaped and truncated, while the corolla is a rounded ovate shape with basal auricles and often with a central blotch of green color. [4] [9]

Croppings of indehiscent pods can occur by 4–6 years. The brown seed pods appear immediately after flowering, and mature in 10 to 11 months. The pods are thick-walled, smooth, somewhat flattened, and elliptical, but slightly curved with a short, curved point. The pods contain within them one or two bean-like brownish-red seeds, but because they do not split open naturally, the pods need to decompose before the seeds can germinate. The seeds are about 1.5–2.5 cm (0.59–0.98 in) long with a brittle, oily coat, and are unpalatable in natural form to herbivores. [7] [9] [6]

Pongamia pinnata is an outbreeding diploid legume tree, with a diploid chromosome number of 22. [9] Root nodules are of the determinate type (as those on soybean and common bean) formed by the causative bacterium Bradyrhizobium .

Range and habitat

The species is naturally distributed in tropical and temperate Asia, from India to Japan to Thailand to Malesia to north and northeastern Australia to some Pacific islands; [2] [4] It has been propagated and distributed farther around the world in humid and subtropical environments from sea level to 1,360 m (Chingola, Zambia), although in the Himalayan foothills, it is not found above 600 m. [10] Withstanding temperatures slightly below 0 °C (32 °F) and up to about 50 °C (122 °F) and annual rainfall of 500–2,500 mm (20–98 in), the tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, including oolitic limestone, and will grow in most soil types, even with its roots in salt water. [11]

The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight, and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot make it drought tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation, a symbiotic process by which gaseous nitrogen (N2) from the air is converted into ammonium (NH4+, a form of nitrogen available to the plant). M. pinnata is also a freshwater flooded forest species, as it can survive total submergence in water for few months continuously. M. pinnata trees are common in Tonlesap lake swamp forests in Cambodia.[ citation needed ]

P. pinnata is now broadly distributed across India, Asia, Africa, northern Australia, and the Pacific and Caribbean Islands and it has been cultivated and transported since the nineteenth century or earlier. As a result, some literature declares M. pinnata naturalized in Africa and certain parts of the United States, while its status as naturalized or native is uncertain in other regions. [12]

Taxonomy

The species was first described as Cytisus pinnatus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. In 1898, Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre reclassified it as Pongamia pinnata. [1] In 1984, Robert Geesink concluded that species of Pongamia and Millettia were easily confused, and consolidated the Pongamia species into Millettia. Subsequent studies revealed that Millettia pinnata was paraphyletic within Millettia, and the species was reclassified as Pongamia pinnata, the sole species in the revived genus Pongamia. [13]

Uses

Pongamia pinnata is well-adapted to arid zones, and has many traditional uses. It is often used for landscaping as a windbreak or for shade due to the large canopy and showy, fragrant flowers. The flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants. The bark may be used to make twine or rope, and it also yields a black gum that has historically been used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. The wood is said to be beautifully grained, but splits easily when sawn, thus relegating it to firewood, posts, and tool handles. [10] The tree's deep taproot and drought tolerance makes this tree ideal for controlling soil erosion and binding sand dunes. [10]

Pongamia pinnata seeds generally contain oil (27-39%), protein (17-37%), starch (6-7%), crude fiber (5-7%), moisture (15-20%), and ash content (2-3%). Nearly half of the oil content of P. pinnata seeds is oleic acid. [14] Oil made from the seeds, known as pongamia oil, has been used as lamp oil, in soapmaking, and as a lubricant. The oil has a high content of triglycerides. Its disagreeable taste and odor are due to bitter flavonoid constituents, including karanjin, pongamol, tannin, and karanjachromene. [11] These compounds induce nausea and vomiting if ingested in its natural form. The fruits, sprouts and seeds are used in traditional medicine. [11]

It can be grown in rainwater harvesting ponds up to 6 m (20 ft) in water depth without losing its greenery and remaining useful for biodiesel production. [15] [16] Studies have shown seedlings with tolerance to salinity levels between 12 and 19 dS/m, [17] with an ability to tolerate salinity stresses of 32.5 dS/m. [18]

Pacific Renewable Energy trial plantation in Caboolture, Queensland Plantationpre.jpg
Pacific Renewable Energy trial plantation in Caboolture, Queensland

The seed oil has been found to be useful in diesel generators, and along with Jatropha and castor, it is being explored in hundreds of projects throughout India and the third world as feedstock for biodiesel. [19] P. pinnata as a biofuel is commercially valuable to the rural populations of places such as India and Bangladesh, where the plant grows abundantly, because it can support the socioeconomic development of these areas. [20] [21]

Several unelectrified villages have used pongamia oil, simple processing techniques, and diesel generators to create their own grid systems to run water pumps and electric lighting. [22]

Research indicates potential use of P. pinnata as a food source for cattle, sheep, and poultry, as its byproduct contains up to 30% protein. [23] [24] As adaptive uses are increasing, the tree is being planted in former citrus growing regions that have declined in Florida and California because of disease and climate change conditions. [25]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halophyte</span> Salt-tolerant plant

A halophyte is a salt-tolerant plant that grows in soil or waters of high salinity, coming into contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-deserts, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs, and seashores. The word derives from Ancient Greek ἅλας (halas) 'salt' and φυτόν (phyton) 'plant'. Halophytes have different anatomy, physiology and biochemistry than glycophytes. An example of a halophyte is the salt marsh grass Spartina alterniflora. Relatively few plant species are halophytes—perhaps only 2% of all plant species. Information about many of the earth's halophytes can be found in the halophyte database.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiesel</span> Fuel made from vegetable oils or animal fats

Biodiesel is a renewable biofuel, a form of diesel fuel, derived from biological sources like vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made from fats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rapeseed</span> Plant species grown for its oil-rich seed

Rapeseed, also known as rape and oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae, cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of erucic acid. The term "canola" denotes a group of rapeseed cultivars that were bred to have very low levels of erucic acid and which are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of vegetable oil and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jojoba</span> Species of plant

Jojoba – also commonly called goat nut, deer nut, pignut, wild hazel, quinine nut, coffeeberry, and gray box bush – is a shrub native to the Southwestern United States. Simmondsia chinensis is the sole species of the family Simmondsiaceae, placed in the order Caryophyllales.

<i>Jatropha</i> Genus of flowering plants in the spurge family Euphorbiaceae

Jatropha is a genus of flowering plants in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. The name is derived from the Greek words ἰατρός (iatros), meaning "physician", and τροφή (trophe), meaning "nutrition", hence the common name physic nut. Another common name is nettlespurge. It contains approximately 170 species of succulent plants, shrubs and trees. Most of these are native to the Americas, with 66 species found in the Old World. Plants produce separate male and female flowers. As with many members of the family Euphorbiaceae, Jatropha contains compounds that are highly toxic. Jatropha species have traditionally been used in basketmaking, tanning and dye production. In the 2000s, one species, Jatropha curcas, generated interest as an oil crop for biodiesel production and also medicinal importance when used as lamp oil; native Mexicans in the Veracruz area developed by selective breeding a Jatropha curcas variant lacking the toxic compounds, yielding a better income when used as source for biodiesel, because of its edible byproduct. Toxicity may return if edible Jatropha is pollinated by toxic types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Winged bean</span> Species of legume plant

The winged bean, also known as cigarillas, goa bean, four-angled bean, four-cornered bean, manila bean, princess bean, star bean, kamrangi bean, pea, dragon bean, is a tropical herbaceous legume plant.

<i>Ziziphus mauritiana</i> Species of plant

Ziziphus mauritiana, also known as Indian jujube, Indian plum, Chinese date, Chinee apple, ber and dunks is a tropical fruit tree species belonging to the family Rhamnaceae. It is often confused with the closely related Chinese jujube, but whereas Z. jujuba prefers temperate climates, Z. mauritiana is tropical to subtropical.

<i>Moringa oleifera</i> Species of flowering tree

Moringa oleifera is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree of the family Moringaceae, native to the Indian subcontinent and used extensively in South and Southeast Asia. Common names include moringa, drumstick tree, horseradish tree, or malunggay.

<i>Crambe abyssinica</i> Species of flowering plant

Crambe abyssinica is an annual oilseed crop of the family Brassicaceae. It is mainly cultivated due to the high levels of erucic acid that are contained in its seeds. The crambe oil is used for industrial purposes and its side products can be partly used as animal feed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiesel by region</span>

This article describes the use and availability of biodiesel in various countries around the world.

Pongamia oil is derived from the seeds of the Millettia pinnata tree, which is native to tropical and temperate Asia. Millettia pinnata, also known as Pongamia pinnata or Pongamia glabra, is common throughout Asia and thus has many different names in different languages, many of which have come to be used in English to describe the seed oil derived from M. pinnata; Pongamia is often used as the generic name for the tree and is derived from the genus the tree was originally placed in. Other names for this oil include honge oil, kanuga oil, karanja oil, and pungai oil.

<i>Thlaspi arvense</i> Species of flowering plant in the cabbage family Brassicaceae

Thlaspi arvense, known by the common name field pennycress, is a flowering plant in the cabbage family Brassicaceae. It is native to Eurasia, and is a common weed throughout much of North America and its home.

<i>Lupinus albus</i> Species of edible plant

Lupinus albus, commonly known as the white lupin or field lupine, is a member of the genus Lupinus in the family Fabaceae. It is a traditional pulse cultivated in the Mediterranean region.

<i>Atriplex semibaccata</i> Species of plant

Atriplex semibaccata, commonly known as Australian saltbush, berry saltbush, or creeping saltbush, is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae and is endemic to Australia. It is a perennial herb native to Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland and New South Wales, but has been introduced into other states and to overseas countries. It flowers and fruits in spring, and propagates from seed when the fruit splits open. This species of saltbush is adapted to inconsistent rainfall, temperature and humidity extremes and to poor soil. It is used for rehabilitation, medicine, as a cover crop and for fodder. Its introduction to other countries has had an environmental and economic impact on them.

Biofuel is fuel that is produced from organic matter (biomass), including plant materials and animal waste. It is considered a renewable source of energy that can assist in reducing carbon emissions. The two main types of biofuel currently being produced in Australia are biodiesel and bioethanol, used as replacements for diesel and petrol (gasoline) respectively. As of 2017 Australia is a relatively small producer of biofuels, accounting for 0.2% of world bioethanol production and 0.1% of world biodiesel production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetable oils as alternative energy</span> Fuel made from plants

Vegetable oils are increasingly used as a substitute for fossil fuels. Vegetable oils are the basis of biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles, but straight vegetable oil often needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity and surface tension, sometimes specially made injector nozzles, increased injection pressure and stronger glow-plugs, in addition to fuel pre-heating is used. Another alternative is vegetable oil refining.

<i>Jatropha curcas</i> Species of plant

Jatropha curcas is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, that is native to the American tropics, most likely Mexico and Central America. It is originally native to the tropical areas of the Americas from Mexico to Argentina, and has been spread throughout the world in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, becoming naturalized or invasive in many areas. The specific epithet, "curcas", was first used by Portuguese doc Garcia de Orta more than 400 years ago. Common names in English include physic nut, Barbados nut, poison nut, bubble bush or purging nut. In parts of Africa and areas in Asia such as India it is often known as "castor oil plant" or "hedge castor oil plant", but it is not the same as the usual castor oil plant, Ricinus communis.

<i>Millettia</i> Genus of legumes

Millettia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It consists of about 169 species of shrubs, lianas or trees, which are native to tropical and subtropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Indochina, southern China, Malesia, and New Guinea. Typical habitats include tropical rain forest and seasonally-dry lowland and upland forest and forest margins, woodland, thicket, wooded grassland, and secondary vegetation.

The following table shows the vegetable oil yields of common energy crops associated with biodiesel production. Included is growing zone data, relevant to farmers and agricultural scientists. This is unrelated to ethanol production, which relies on starch, sugar and cellulose content instead of oil yields.

<i>Croton megalocarpus</i> Species of flowering plant

Croton megalocarpus is a tree species in the family Euphorbiaceae. It is indigenous to ten countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre. Plants of the World Online . Retrieved 16 September 2023.
  2. 1 2 "Pongamia". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  3. 1 2 "Plants profile for Millettia pinnata (pongame oiltree)". PLANTS Profile. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  4. 1 2 3 4 F.A. Zich; B.Hyland; T. Whiffen; R.A. Kerrigan. "Pongamia pinnata var. pinnata". Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants (RFK8). Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government . Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  5. ↑ Pongamia Adans. Plants of the World Online . Retrieved 16 September 2023.
  6. 1 2 Argent, G., A. Saridan, EJF. Campbell, & P. Wilkie. "Leguminosae". Manual of The Larger and More Important Non-Dipterocarp Trees of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. :366. Samarinda: Forest Research Institute.
  7. 1 2 Orwa C.; Mutua A.; Kindt R.; Jamnadass R.; Simons A. (2009). "Pongamia pinnata; Fabaceae - Papilionoideae; (L.) Pierre; pongam, karanj, karanga, kanji" (PDF). Agroforestry Database version 4.0. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
  8. ↑ Giesen, W., S. Wulffraat, M. Zierenand & L. Scholten (2007). Mangrove Guidebook for Southeast Asia [ permanent dead link ]: 198-9. Bangkok :FAO and Wetlands International. ISBN 974-7946-85-8
  9. 1 2 3 "Weed Risk Assessment : Pongamia" (PDF). Daff.qld.gov.au. Retrieved 2013-11-21.
  10. 1 2 3 Pongamia pinnata - a nitrogen fixing tree for oilseed Archived 2016-01-17 at the Wayback Machine
  11. 1 2 3 "Factsheet from New crops at Purdue University". Hort.purdue.edu. 1998-01-08. Retrieved 2013-09-28.
  12. ↑ "Pongamia Risk Assessment" (PDF). Retrieved 22 July 2021.
  13. ↑ Wendy E. Cooper, Darren M. Crayn, Frank A. Zich, Rebecca E. Miller, Melissa Harrison, Lars Nauheimer "A review of Austrocallerya and Pongamia (Leguminosae subfamily Papilionoideae) in Australia, and the description of a new monotypic genus, Ibatiria," Australian Systematic Botany, 32(4), 363-384, (29 August 2019) https://doi.org/10.1071/SB18039
  14. ↑ "Pongamia Factsheet" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-09-28.
  15. ↑ "Rain water harvesting by fresh water flooded forests". Scribd.com. Retrieved 2013-09-28.
  16. ↑ Degani, Erika; Prasad, M. V. R.; Paradkar, Anant; et al. (2022-12-15). "A critical review of Pongamia pinnata multiple applications: From land remediation and carbon sequestration to socioeconomic benefits". Journal of Environmental Management. 324: 116297. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116297. ISSN   0301-4797. PMID   36174475. S2CID   252558634.
  17. ↑ Tomar, O. S.; Gupta, R. K. (1985-10-01). "Performance of some forest tree species in saline soils under shallow and saline water-table conditions". Plant and Soil. 87 (3): 329–335. doi:10.1007/BF02181900. ISSN   1573-5036. S2CID   12335333.
  18. ↑ Singh, K (1990). "Effect of soil salinity and sodicity on seedling growth and mineral composition of Pongamia pinnata and Araucaria cunninghamii". Tropical Ecology. 31 (2): 124–130 – via CAB Direct.
  19. ↑ Karmee, SK; Chadha, A (2005). "Preparation of biodiesel from crude oil of Pongamia pinnata". Bioresource Technology. 96 (13): 1425–9. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2004.12.011. PMID   15939268.
  20. ↑ Halder, P. K.; Paul, N.; Beg, M. R. A. (18 December 2014). "Prospect of Pongamia pinnata (Karanja) in Bangladesh: A Sustainable Source of Liquid Fuel". Journal of Renewable Energy. 2014: 1–12. doi: 10.1155/2014/647324 .
  21. ↑ Kesari, Vigya; Rangan, Latha (September 2010). "Development of Pongamia pinnata as an alternative biofuel crop — current status and scope of plantations in India". Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology. 13 (3): 127–137. doi:10.1007/s12892-010-0064-1. S2CID   2790680 . Retrieved 23 July 2021.
  22. ↑ "On Biodiesel". Tve.org. Archived from the original on April 26, 2012. Retrieved 2013-09-28.
  23. ↑ Scott, Paul T.; Pregelj, Lisette; Chen, Ning; Hadler, Johanna S.; Djordjevic, Michael A.; Gresshoff, Peter M. (2008). "Pongamia pinnata: An Untapped Resource for the Biofuels Industry of the Future". BioEnergy Research. 1: 2. doi:10.1007/s12155-008-9003-0. S2CID   37994181.
  24. ↑ Heuzé V., Tran G., Delagarde R., Hassoun P., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2017. Karanja (Millettia pinnata). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/636
  25. ↑ Frisaro, Freida, Pongamia trees grow where citrus once flourished, offering renewable energy and plant-based protein , Associated Press, July 6, 2024
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.