Salicornia

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Salicornia
Salicornia europaea MS 0802.JPG
Salicornia europaea
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Amaranthaceae
Subfamily: Salicornioideae
Genus: Salicornia
L.
Species

See text

Salicornia is a genus of succulent, halophytic (salt tolerant) flowering plants in the family Amaranthaceae that grow in salt marshes, on beaches, and among mangroves. Salicornia species are native to North America, Europe, central Asia, and southern Africa. Common names for the genus include glasswort , pickleweed , picklegrass, and marsh samphire ; these common names are also used for some species not in Salicornia. [1] To French speakers in Atlantic Canada, they are known colloquially as tétines de souris ('mouse tits'). The main European species is often eaten, called marsh samphire in Britain, and the main North American species is occasionally sold in grocery stores or appears on restaurant menus as sea beans, samphire greens or sea asparagus.

Contents

Description

Illustration of Salicornia maritima Salicornia maritima.jpg
Illustration of Salicornia maritima

The Salicornia species are small annual herbs. They grow prostrate to erect, their simple or branched stems are succulent, hairless, and appear to be jointed. The opposite leaves are strongly reduced to small fleshy scales with a narrow dry margin, hairless, unstalked and united at the base, thus enclosing and forming a succulent sheath around the stem, which gives it the appearance of being composed of jointed segments. [2] [3] Many species are green, but their foliage turns red in autumn. Older stems may be somewhat woody basally.

All stems terminate in spike-like apparently jointed inflorescences. Each joint consists of two opposite minute bracts with a (1-) 3-flowered cyme tightly embedded in cavities of the main axis and partly hidden by the bracts. The flowers are arranged in a triangle, both lateral flowers beneath the central flower. The hermaphrodite flowers are more or less radially symmetric, with a perianth of three fleshy tepals united nearly to the apex. There are 1–2 stamens and an ovary with two stigmas. [3]

The perianth is persistent in fruit. The fruit wall (pericarp) is membranous. The vertical seed is ellipsoid, with yellowish brown, membranous, hairy seed coat. The seed contains no perisperm (feeding tissue). [3]

Like most members of the subfamily Salicornioideae, Salicornia species use the C3 carbon fixation pathway to take in carbon dioxide from the surrounding atmosphere. [4]

Taxonomy

Salicornia europaea Salicornia flowers.JPG
Salicornia europaea

The genus Salicornia was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus. [5] Salicornia europaea was selected as the type species. [6]

The genus probably originated during the Miocene in the region between the Mediterranean Basin and Central Asia. Evolving from within the perennial and frost-sensitive former genus Sarcocornia (now shown to be paraphyletic), [7] the annual, strongly inbreeding and frost-tolerant Salicornia diversified during the late Pliocene to early Pleistocene. By events of intercontinental dispersals, they reached southern Africa twice and North America at least three times. Two tetraploid lineages expanded rapidly, with the ability to colonize lower belts of the salt marshes than their diploid relatives. Inbreeding and geographical isolation led to a large number of reproductive isolated species that are only weakly differentiated. [8]

The taxonomic classification of this genus is extremely difficult (with one paper calling it a "taxonomic nightmare"). [8] The determination of species seems almost impossible for non-specialists. The reasons for these difficulties are the reduced habit with weak morphological differentiation and high phenotypic variability. As the succulent plants lose their characteristics while drying, herbarium specimens often cannot be determined with certainty and are less suited for taxonomic studies. [8]

Molecular phylogenetic studies have regularly revised the circumscription of the genus. It was considered distinct from Sarcocornia in 2007 and 2012 studies. [8] [9] A 2017 study resulted in Sarcocornia being sunk into Salicornia, substantially increasing the size of the genus, which was divided into four subgenera. [7]

Species

S. rubra at a saline inland habitat Salicornia rubra -- Matt Lavin 003.jpg
S. rubra at a saline inland habitat

As of April 2022, Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:

Distribution and habitat

Salicornia at Ballona Wetlands, Southern California Salicornia at Ballona Saltwater Marsh, California.jpg
Salicornia at Ballona Wetlands, Southern California

The species of Salicornia are widely distributed over the Northern Hemisphere and in southern Africa, ranging from the subtropics to subarctic regions. There is one species present in New Zealand. [10]

They grow in coastal salt marshes and in inland salty habitats like shores of salt lakes. [8] Salicornia species are halophytes and can generally tolerate immersion in salt water (hygrohalophytes).

Ecology

Salicornia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the Coleophora case-bearers C. atriplicis and C. salicorniae; the latter feeds exclusively on Salicornia spp.[ citation needed ]

Uses

Culinary

Salicornia bigelovii Salicorniabigelovii.jpg
Salicornia bigelovii

S. europaea is edible, either cooked or raw, [11] as are S. rubra and S. depressa. [12] In England, S. europaea is one of several plants known as samphire (including rock samphire); the term samphire is believed to be a corruption of the French name, [herbe de] Saint-Pierre, which means "St. Peter's herb". [13]

In Hawaii, where it is known as 'sea asparagus', it is often blanched and used as a topping for salads or accompaniment for fish. [14] [15]

In addition to S. europaea, the seeds of S. bigelovii yield an edible oil. S. bigelovii's edibility is compromised somewhat because it contains saponins, which are toxic under certain conditions. [11]

Umari keerai ( S. brachiata ) is cooked and eaten or pickled. It is also used as fodder for cattle, sheep and goats. [16] In Kalpitiya, Sri Lanka, it is used to feed donkeys.

On the east coast of Canada, the plant is known as 'samphire greens' and is a local delicacy. In southeast Alaska, it is known as beach asparagus. In Nova Scotia, Canada, they are known as crow's foot greens. In British Columbia, they are known as sea asparagus. [17] In the United States, they are known as 'sea beans' when used for culinary purposes. Other names include sea green bean, sea pickle, and marsh samphire. [18]

In India, researchers at the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute developed a process to yield culinary salt from S. brachiata. The resulting product is known as vegetable salt and sold under the brand name Saloni. [19]

Dehydrated, pulverized Salicornia is sold under the brand name "Green Salt" as a salt substitute claimed to be as salty in taste as table salt, but with less sodium. [20] [21]

Pharmacological research

In South Korea, Phyto Corporation has developed a technology of extracting low-sodium salt from S. europaea, a salt-accumulating plant. The company claims that the naturally derived plant salt is effective in treating high blood pressure and fatty liver disease [22] by reducing sodium intake. [23] The company has also developed a desalted Salicornia powder containing antioxidative and antithrombus polyphenols, claimed to be effective in treating obesity and arteriosclerosis, [24] as well as providing a means to help resolve global food shortages. [25]

Environmental uses

Pickleweed is used in phytoextraction. It is highly effective at removing selenium from soil, which is absorbed by the plant and then released into the atmosphere to be dispersed by prevailing winds. [26] Pickleweed (S. bigelovii) has been found to have average volatilization rates 10–100 times higher than other species. [27]

Industrial use

Historical

Salicornia virginica Salicornia virginica.jpg
Salicornia virginica

The ashes of glasswort and saltwort plants and of kelp were long used as a source of soda ash (mainly sodium carbonate) for glassmaking and soapmaking. The introduction of the LeBlanc process for industrial production of soda ash superseded the use of plant sources in the first half of the 19th century.

Umari keerai is used as raw material in paper and board factories. [16]

Contemporary

Because S. bigelovii can be grown using saltwater and its seeds contain high levels of unsaturated oil (30 wt. %, mostly linoleic acid) and protein (35 wt. %), [28] [29] it can be used to produce animal feedstuff and as a biofuel feedstock on coastal land where conventional crops cannot be grown. Adding nitrogen-based fertiliser to the seawater appears to increase the rate of growth and the eventual height of the plant, [30] and the effluent from marine aquaculture (e.g. shrimp farming) is a suggested use for this purpose. [28]

Experimental fields of Salicornia have been planted in Ras al-Zawr (Saudi Arabia), [29] Eritrea (northeast Africa) and Sonora (northwest Mexico) [31] aimed at the production of biodiesel. The company responsible for the Sonora trials (Global Seawater Archived 2018-05-28 at the Wayback Machine ) claims between 225 and 250 gallons of BQ-9000 biodiesel can be produced per hectare (approximately 2.5 acres) of salicornia, [32] and is promoting a $35 million scheme to create a 12,000-acre (49 km2) salicornia farm in Bahia de Kino. [33]

Stems and roots of S. brachiata plants have a high cellulose content (ca. 30 wt. %), whereas tender stem tips exhibit a low cellulose content (9.2 wt. %). [34] S. brachiata revealed the dominance of rhamnose, arabinose, mannose, galactose, and glucose, with meager presence of ribose and xylose in their structural polysaccharide. [35]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halophyte</span> Salt-tolerant plant

A halophyte is a salt-tolerant plant that grows in soil or waters of high salinity, coming into contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-deserts, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs, and seashores. The word derives from Ancient Greek ἅλας (halas) 'salt' and φυτόν (phyton) 'plant'. Halophytes have different anatomy, physiology and biochemistry than glycophytes. An example of a halophyte is the salt marsh grass Spartina alterniflora. Relatively few plant species are halophytes—perhaps only 2% of all plant species. Information about many of the earth's halophytes can be found in the halophyte database.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amaranthaceae</span> Family of flowering plants

Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus Amaranthus. It includes the former goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae and contains about 165 genera and 2,040 species, making it the most species-rich lineage within its parent order, Caryophyllales.

<i>Crithmum</i> Species of flowering plant in the celery family Apiaceae

Crithmum is a monospecific genus of flowering plant in the carrot family, Apiaceae. The sole species, Crithmum maritimum, is commonly known as rock samphire, sea fennel or samphire. It is found in parts of the Old World and is edible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Samphire</span> Common name for multiple species of plants

Samphire is a name given to a number of succulent salt-tolerant plants (halophytes) that tend to be associated with water bodies.

Sarcocornia is a formerly recognized genus of flowering plants in the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae. Species are known commonly as samphires, glassworts, or saltworts. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that when separated from Salicornia, the genus is paraphyletic, since Salicornia is embedded within it, and Sarcocornia has now been merged into a more broadly circumscribed Salicornia. When separated from Salicornia, the genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, and is most diverse in the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salicornioideae</span> Subfamily of flowering plants

The Salicornioideae are a subfamily of the flowering plant family Amaranthaceae. Important characters are succulent, often articulated stems, strongly reduced leaves, and flowers aggregated in thick, dense spike-shaped thyrses. These halophytic plants are distributed worldwide. Many are edible

Saltwort is a common name for various genera of flowering plants that thrive in salty environments, typically in coastal salt marshes and seashores, including:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glasswort</span> Index of plants with the same common name

The glassworts are various succulent, annual halophytic plants, that is, plants that thrive in saline environments, such as seacoasts and salt marshes. The original English glasswort plants belong to the genus Salicornia, but today the glassworts include halophyte plants from several genera, some of which are native to continents unknown to the medieval English, and growing in ecosystems, such as mangrove swamps, never envisioned when the term glasswort was coined.

<i>Tecticornia</i> Genus of plants

Tecticornia is a genus of succulent, salt tolerant plants largely endemic to Australia. Taxa in the genus are commonly referred to as samphires. In 2007, the genus Halosarcia, along with three other Australian genera was incorporated into the genus.

<i>Salicornia quinqueflora</i> Species of plant

Salicornia quinqueflora, synonym Sarcocornia quinqueflora, commonly known as beaded samphire, bead weed, beaded glasswort or glasswort, is a species of succulent halophytic coastal shrub. It occurs in wetter coastal areas of Australia and New Zealand.

<i>Tecticornia arbuscula</i> Species of plant

Tecticornia arbuscula, the shrubby glasswort or scrubby samphire, is a species of plant in the family Amaranthaceae, native to Australia. It is a shrub that grows to 2 metres in height, with a spreading habit. It has succulent swollen branchlets with small leaf lobes.

<i>Salicornia bigelovii</i> Species of flowering plant in the amaranth family Amaranthaceae

Salicornia bigelovii is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae known by the common names dwarf saltwort and dwarf glasswort. It is native to coastal areas of the eastern and southern United States, Belize, and coastal Mexico. It is a plant of salt marshes, a halophyte which grows in saltwater. It is an annual herb producing an erect, branching stem which is jointed at many internodes. The fleshy, green to red stem can reach about 60 cm in height. The leaves are usually small plates, pairs of which are fused into a band around the stem. The inflorescence is a dense, sticklike spike of flowers. Each flower is made up of a fused pocket of sepals enclosing the stamens and stigmas, with no petals. The fruit is an utricle containing tiny, fuzzy seeds. The southern part of the species range is represented by the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatán, where it is a subdominant plant associate in the mangroves.

<i>Arthroceras subterminale</i> Species of flowering plant

Arthroceras subterminale is a species of flowering plant in the Amaranth family known by the common name Parish's glasswort. It is the only species in the genus Arthroceras. This coastal and inland California native plant is a shrub that is found southerly into northern Mexico, also in both coastal and inland areas, including salt marshes, alkali flats, and other habitats with saline soils.

<i>Salicornia europaea</i> Species of flowering plant in the amaranth family Amaranthaceae

Salicornia europaea, known as marsh samphire, common glasswort or just glasswort, is a halophytic annual dicot flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae. Glasswort is a succulent herb also known as "pickle weed" or "marsh samphire". As a succulent, it has high water content, which accounts for its slightly translucent look and gives it the descriptive name "glasswort". To some people, it is known as "chicken toe" because of its shape. To others, it is called "saltwort". It grows in various zones of intertidal salt marshes, on beaches, and among mangroves.

<i>Halostachys</i> Genus of flowering plants

Halostachys is a genus of flowering plants in the plant family Amaranthaceae, containing a single species, Halostachys caspica. The plants are small to medium halophytic shrubs with apparently jointed fleshy stems and scale-like leaves. They are native to western and central Asia and northern China.

<i>Kalidium</i> Genus of flowering plants

Kalidium is a genus of flowering plants in the plant family Amaranthaceae. The species are shrubby halophytes distributed in Southeast Europe, Southwest Asia and Central Asia to China.

<i>Halopeplis</i> Genus of flowering plants

Halopeplis is a genus in the family Amaranthaceae. The plants are halophytes with not articulated stems and fleshy stem-clasping leaves. There are three species, occurring from the Mediterranean basin and North Africa to Southwest Asia and Central Asia.

<i>Microcnemum</i> Genus of flowering plants

Microcnemum is a genus in the plant family Amaranthaceae, containing a single species, Microcnemum coralloides. It is a dwarf annual halophyte with fleshy, apparently jointed stems and reduced leaves and flowers. The two subspecies show a disjunct distribution in Spain and Western Asia.

<i>Salicornia pacifica</i> Species of plant

Salicornia pacifica, also known as pickleweed, sea asparagus, Pacific swampfire, or glasswort, is a species of low-growing perennial succulent halophyte in the genus Salicornia found in the Pacific coast of North America and California.

<i>Salicornia fruticosa</i> Species of plant

Salicornia fruticosa, synonym Sarcocornia fruticosa, is a species of glasswort in the family Amaranthaceae (pigweeds). It is native to southern Europe, north Africa, Western Asia and Yemen. It is a halophyte, a plant that can grow in saline conditions.

References

  1. ↑ Salicornia Archived 2018-09-13 at the Wayback Machine , Integrated Taxonomic Information System, serial number 20646.
  2. ↑ Stace, C. A. (2019). New Flora of the British Isles (Fourth ed.). Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.: C & M Floristics. p. 522. ISBN   978-1-5272-2630-2.
  3. 1 2 3 Ball, Peter W. (2004). "Salicornia L. Archived 2010-06-20 at the Wayback Machine ," in Flora of North America: North of Mexico Volume 4: Magnoliophyta: Caryophyllidae, part 1 , Editorial Committee of the Flora of North America (Oxford University Press, 2004). ISBN   978-0-19-517389-5. Online version retrieved August 10, 2016.
  4. ↑ Kadereit, G.; Borsch, T.; Weising, K.; Freitag, H. (2003). "Phylogeny of Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae and the evolution of C4 photosynthesis". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 164 (6): 959–86. doi:10.1086/378649. S2CID   83564261.
  5. ↑ Carl Linnaeus (1753). Species Plantarum, Tomus I: 3. First description of Salicornia, scanned at BHL Archived 2014-05-21 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ↑ "Salicornia". Tropicos . Missouri Botanical Garden . Retrieved 2016-08-11.
  7. 1 2 Piirainen, Mikko; Liebisch, Oskar & Kadereit, Gudrun (2017). "Phylogeny, biogeography, systematics and taxonomy of Salicornioideae (Amaranthaceae/Chenopodiaceae) – A cosmopolitan, highly specialized hygrohalophyte lineage dating back to the Oligocene". Taxon. 66 (1): 109–132. doi:10.12705/661.6.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Kadereit, G.; Ball, P.; Beer, S.; Mucina, L.; Sokoloff, D.; Teege, P.; Yaprak, A.E.; Freitag, H. (2007). "A taxonomic nightmare comes true: phylogeny and biogeography of glassworts (Salicornia L., Chenopodiaceae)". Taxon. 56 (4): 1143–70. doi:10.2307/25065909. JSTOR   25065909.
  9. ↑ Kadereit, G.; Piirainen, M.; Lambinon, J.; Vanderpoorten, A. (2012). "Cryptic taxa should have names. Reflections on the glasswort genus Salicornia (Amaranthaceae)". Taxon. 61 (6): 1227–39. doi:10.1002/tax.616005. hdl:2268/153011. Archived from the original on 2020-07-14. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
  10. ↑ "Flora of New Zealand | Taxon Profile | Salicornia quinqueflora". www.nzflora.info. Archived from the original on 2021-02-13. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
  11. 1 2 "Salicornia" Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine , page of the Plants for a Future website Archived 2019-10-18 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved July 14, 2007.
  12. ↑ Nyerges, Christopher (2017). Foraging Washington: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Foods. Guilford, CT: Falcon Guides. ISBN   978-1-4930-2534-3. OCLC   965922681.
  13. ↑ Davidson, Alan (2002). The Penguin Companion To Food (Penguin), p. 828. ISBN   978-0-14-200163-9. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, Completely Revised and Updated (Scribner, New York), p. 317. ISBN   978-0-684-80001-1.
  14. ↑ "Tasting Hawai'i With Moloka'i Chef James Temple: The Other Asparagus... Sea Asparagus". tastinghawaii.com. November 10, 2013. Archived from the original on September 28, 2018. Retrieved September 28, 2018.
  15. ↑ "Eating Local, Hawaiian-Style: Sea Asparagus and Ahi Poke Omaraisu". spiceboxtravels.com. April 3, 2015. Archived from the original on September 28, 2018. Retrieved September 28, 2018.
  16. 1 2 Salicornia, oil-yielding plant for coastal belts, The Hindu
  17. ↑ "Sea Asparagus". Archived from the original on 2016-01-17. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
  18. ↑ Cook's Thesaurus: Sea Vegetables Archived 2013-05-01 at the Wayback Machine , retrieved 2012-10-08.
  19. ↑ "Indian scientists produce salt from vegetable". The Economic Times (India). 18 May 2003. Archived from the original on 2015-06-27. Retrieved 2015-06-26.
  20. ↑ Florence Fabricant, "To Sprinkle: Add Some Green To Your Salt Lineup", New York Times, August 11, 2021, p. D3; online version "Add Green to Your Salt Lineup" August 9, 2021
  21. ↑ Green Salt web site, Archived 2024-12-10 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ↑ Kim, Jae Hwan; Suk, Sujin; Jang, Woo Jung; Lee, Chang Hyung; Kim, Jong-Eun; Park, Jin-Kyu; Kweon, Mee-Hyang; Kim, Jong Hun; Lee, Ki Won (2017). "Salicornia Extract Ameliorates Salt-Induced Aggravation of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Obese Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet". Journal of Food Science. 82 (7): 1765–1774. doi:10.1111/1750-3841.13777. PMID   28608557.
  23. ↑ Panth, Nisha; Park, Sin-Hee; Kim, Hyun; Kim, Deuk-Hoi; Oak, Min-Ho (2016). "Protective Effect of Salicornia europaea Extracts on High Salt Intake-Induced Vascular Dysfunction and Hypertension". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 17 (7): 1176. doi: 10.3390/ijms17071176 . PMC   4964547 . PMID   27455235.
  24. ↑ Won, Kyung Jong; Lee, Kang Pa; Baek, Suji; Cui, Long; Kweon, Mee-Hyang; Jung, Seung Hyo; Ryu, Yun-Kyoung; Hong, Jung Min; Cho, Eun-Ah; Shin, Hwa-Sup; Kim, Bokyung (2017). "Desalted Salicornia europaea extract attenuated vascular neointima formation by inhibiting the MAPK pathway-mediated migration and proliferation in vascular smooth muscle cells". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 94: 430–438. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2017.07.108. PMID   28778046.
  25. ↑ Rahman, Md. Mahbubur; Kim, Myung-Jin; Kim, Jin-Hyoung; Kim, Sok-Ho; Go, Hyeon-Kyu; Kweon, Mee-Hyang; Kim, Do-Hyung (2018). "Desalted Salicornia europaea powder and its active constituent, trans-ferulic acid, exert anti-obesity effects by suppressing adipogenic-related factors". Pharmaceutical Biology. 56 (1): 183–191. doi:10.1080/13880209.2018.1436073. PMC   6130585 . PMID   29521146.
  26. ↑ Raven, Peter H.; Eichhorn, Susan E.; Ray F. Evert (2011). Biology of plants (8 ed.). New York, NY: Freeman. p. 12. ISBN   9781429219617.
  27. ↑ Terry, N; Zayed, A. M; De Souza, M. P; Tarun, A. S (2000). "Selenium In Higher Plants". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 51: 401–432. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.51.1.401. PMID   15012198.
  28. 1 2 Glenn, Edward P.; Brown, J. Jed; O'Leary, James W. (August 1998). "Irrigating Crops with Seawater" (PDF). Scientific American . 279 (August 1998). USA: Scientific American, Inc.: 76–81. Bibcode:1998SciAm.279b..76G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0898-76. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
  29. 1 2 Clark, Arthur (November–December 1994). "Samphire: From Sea to Shining Seed" (PDF). Saudi Aramco World. Saudi Aramco. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
  30. ↑ Alsaeedi, Abdullah H. (2003). "Di Pattern of Salicornia Vegetative Growth in Relation to Fertilization" (PDF). Journal of King Faisal University. 4 (1). Al-Hassa: King Faisal University: 105–18. Retrieved 2008-11-17. adequate fertilization increases significantly the relative growth rate especially during the 'rapid' phase of the vegetative stage[ dead link ]
  31. ↑ "USIJI Uniform Reporting Document" (PDF). United States Initiative on Joint Implementation. c. 1997. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2008-11-17. Project Salicornia: Halophyte Cultivation in Sonora
  32. ↑ Ryan C. Christiansen (2008-07-31). "Sea asparagus can be oilseed feedstock for biodiesel". Biomass Magazine. Archived from the original on 2009-07-20. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
  33. ↑ Dickerson, Marla (2008-07-10). "Letting the sea cultivate the land". Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
  34. ↑ Sanandiya, Naresh D.; Prasad, Kamalesh; Meena, Ramavatar; Siddhanta, Arup K. (2010-04-01). "Cellulose of Salicornia brachiata". Natural Product Communications. 5 (4): 603–606. doi: 10.1177/1934578X1000500421 . ISSN   1934-578X. PMID   20433080. S2CID   12588647.
  35. ↑ Sanandiya, Naresh D; Siddhanta, A.K (2014). "Chemical studies on the polysaccharides of Salicornia brachiata". Carbohydrate Polymers. 112: 300–7. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.05.072. PMID   25129748.
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