Cellulose

Last updated

Contents

Cellulose [1]
Cellulose Sessel.svg
Cellulose-Ibeta-from-xtal-2002-3D-balls.png
Identifiers
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
  • None
ECHA InfoCard 100.029.692 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
EC Number
  • 232-674-9
E number E460 (thickeners, ...)
KEGG
PubChem CID
UNII
Properties
(C
12
H
20
O
10
)
n
Molar mass 162.1406 g/mol per glucose unit
Appearancewhite powder
Density 1.5 g/cm3
Melting point 260–270 °C; 500–518 °F; 533–543 K Decomposes [2]
none
Thermochemistry
−963,000 kJ/mol[ clarification needed ]
−2828,000 kJ/mol[ clarification needed ]
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704.svgHealth 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentineFlammability 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oilInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
1
1
0
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)
TWA 15 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp) [2]
REL (Recommended)
TWA 10 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp) [2]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
N.D. [2]
Related compounds
Related compounds
Starch
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
X mark.svgN  verify  (what is  Yes check.svgYX mark.svgN ?)

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C
6
H
10
O
5
)
n
, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. [3] [4] Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. [5] Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth. [6] The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp is approximately 57%. [7] [8] [9]

Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon. Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under development as a renewable fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton. [6] Cellulose is also greatly affected by direct interaction with several organic liquids. [10]

Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha . In human nutrition, cellulose is a non-digestible constituent of insoluble dietary fiber, acting as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and potentially aiding in defecation.

History

Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula. [3] [11] [12] Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of rayon ("artificial silk") from cellulose began in the 1890s and cellophane was invented in 1912. Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically derived enzymes) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda. [13]

The arrangement of cellulose and other polysaccharides in a plant cell wall Plant cell wall diagram-en.svg
The arrangement of cellulose and other polysaccharides in a plant cell wall

Structure and properties

Cellulose under a microscope. Salfetka universal'naia gubchataia (vid sboku).jpg
Cellulose under a microscope.

Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is hydrophilic with the contact angle of 20–30 degrees, [14] is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It was shown to melt at 467 °C in pulse tests made by Dauenhauer et al. (2016). [15] It can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated mineral acids at high temperature. [16]

Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch and glycogen. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer. Unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in cell walls where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix. The high tensile strength of plant stems and of the tree wood also arises from the arrangement of cellulose fibers intimately distributed into the lignin matrix. The mechanical role of cellulose fibers in the wood matrix responsible for its strong structural resistance, can somewhat be compared to that of the reinforcement bars in concrete, lignin playing here the role of the hardened cement paste acting as the "glue" in between the cellulose fibers. Mechanical properties of cellulose in primary plant cell wall are correlated with growth and expansion of plant cells. [17] Live fluorescence microscopy techniques are promising in investigation of the role of cellulose in growing plant cells. [18]

A triple strand of cellulose showing the hydrogen bonds (cyan lines) between glucose strands Cellulose spacefilling model.jpg
A triple strand of cellulose showing the hydrogen bonds (cyan lines) between glucose strands
Cotton fibres represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing more than 90% of this polysaccharide. Cotton.JPG
Cotton fibres represent the purest natural form of cellulose, containing more than 90% of this polysaccharide.

Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60–70 °C in water (as in cooking), cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in water. [19]

Several types of cellulose are known. These forms are distinguished according to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures Iα and Iβ. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in Iα while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of Iβ. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV. [20]

Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial cellulose have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units. [6] Molecules with very small chain length resulting from the breakdown of cellulose are known as cellodextrins; in contrast to long-chain cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic solvents.

The chemical formula of cellulose is (C6H10O5)n where n is the degree of polymerization and represents the number of glucose groups. [21]

Plant-derived cellulose is usually found in a mixture with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other substances, while bacterial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content and higher tensile strength due to higher chain lengths. [6] :3384

Cellulose consists of fibrils with crystalline and amorphous regions. These cellulose fibrils may be individualized by mechanical treatment of cellulose pulp, often assisted by chemical oxidation or enzymatic treatment, yielding semi-flexible cellulose nanofibrils generally 200 nm to 1 μm in length depending on the treatment intensity. [22] Cellulose pulp may also be treated with strong acid to hydrolyze the amorphous fibril regions, thereby producing short rigid cellulose nanocrystals a few 100 nm in length. [23] These nanocelluloses are of high technological interest due to their self-assembly into cholesteric liquid crystals, [24] production of hydrogels or aerogels, [25] use in nanocomposites with superior thermal and mechanical properties, [26] and use as Pickering stabilizers for emulsions. [27]

Processing

Biosynthesis

In plants cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane by rosette terminal complexes (RTCs). The RTCs are hexameric protein structures, approximately 25 nm in diameter, that contain the cellulose synthase enzymes that synthesise the individual cellulose chains. [28] Each RTC floats in the cell's plasma membrane and "spins" a microfibril into the cell wall.

RTCs contain at least three different cellulose synthases, encoded by CesA (Ces is short for "cellulose synthase") genes, in an unknown stoichiometry. [29] Separate sets of CesA genes are involved in primary and secondary cell wall biosynthesis. There are known to be about seven subfamilies in the plant CesA superfamily, some of which include the more cryptic, tentatively-named Csl (cellulose synthase-like) enzymes. These cellulose syntheses use UDP-glucose to form the β(1→4)-linked cellulose. [30]

Bacterial cellulose is produced using the same family of proteins, although the gene is called BcsA for "bacterial cellulose synthase" or CelA for "cellulose" in many instances. [31] In fact, plants acquired CesA from the endosymbiosis event that produced the chloroplast. [32] All cellulose synthases known belongs to glucosyltransferase family 2 (GT2). [31]

Cellulose synthesis requires chain initiation and elongation, and the two processes are separate. Cellulose synthase (CesA) initiates cellulose polymerization using a steroid primer, sitosterol-beta-glucoside, and UDP-glucose. It then utilizes UDP-D-glucose precursors to elongate the growing cellulose chain. A cellulase may function to cleave the primer from the mature chain. [33]

Cellulose is also synthesised by tunicate animals, particularly in the tests of ascidians (where the cellulose was historically termed "tunicine" (tunicin)). [34]

Breakdown (cellulolysis)

Cellulolysis is the process of breaking down cellulose into smaller polysaccharides called cellodextrins or completely into glucose units; this is a hydrolysis reaction. Because cellulose molecules bind strongly to each other, cellulolysis is relatively difficult compared to the breakdown of other polysaccharides. [35] However, this process can be significantly intensified in a proper solvent, e.g. in an ionic liquid. [36]

Most mammals have limited ability to digest dietary fiber such as cellulose. Some ruminants like cows and sheep contain certain symbiotic anaerobic bacteria (such as Cellulomonas and Ruminococcus spp.) in the flora of the rumen, and these bacteria produce enzymes called cellulases that hydrolyze cellulose. The breakdown products are then used by the bacteria for proliferation. [37] The bacterial mass is later digested by the ruminant in its digestive system (stomach and small intestine). Horses use cellulose in their diet by fermentation in their hindgut. [38] Some termites contain in their hindguts certain flagellate protozoa producing such enzymes, whereas others contain bacteria or may produce cellulase. [39]

The enzymes used to cleave the glycosidic linkage in cellulose are glycoside hydrolases including endo-acting cellulases and exo-acting glucosidases. Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include dockerins and carbohydrate-binding modules. [40]

Breakdown (thermolysis)

At temperatures above 350 °C, cellulose undergoes thermolysis (also called 'pyrolysis'), decomposing into solid char, vapors, aerosols, and gases such as carbon dioxide. [41] Maximum yield of vapors which condense to a liquid called bio-oil is obtained at 500 °C. [42]

Semi-crystalline cellulose polymers react at pyrolysis temperatures (350–600 °C) in a few seconds; this transformation has been shown to occur via a solid-to-liquid-to-vapor transition, with the liquid (called intermediate liquid cellulose or molten cellulose) existing for only a fraction of a second. [43] Glycosidic bond cleavage produces short cellulose chains of two-to-seven monomers comprising the melt. Vapor bubbling of intermediate liquid cellulose produces aerosols, which consist of short chain anhydro-oligomers derived from the melt. [44]

Continuing decomposition of molten cellulose produces volatile compounds including levoglucosan, furans, pyrans, light oxygenates, and gases via primary reactions. [45] Within thick cellulose samples, volatile compounds such as levoglucosan undergo 'secondary reactions' to volatile products including pyrans and light oxygenates such as glycolaldehyde. [46]

Hemicellulose

Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides related to cellulose that comprises about 20% of the biomass of land plants. In contrast to cellulose, hemicelluloses are derived from several sugars in addition to glucose, especially xylose but also including mannose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Hemicelluloses consist of shorter chains – between 500 and 3000 sugar units. [47] Furthermore, hemicelluloses are branched, whereas cellulose is unbranched.

Regenerated cellulose

Cellulose is soluble in several kinds of media, several of which are the basis of commercial technologies. These dissolution processes are reversible and are used in the production of regenerated celluloses (such as viscose and cellophane) from dissolving pulp.

The most important solubilizing agent is carbon disulfide in the presence of alkali. Other agents include Schweizer's reagent, N-methylmorpholine N-oxide, and lithium chloride in dimethylacetamide. In general, these agents modify the cellulose, rendering it soluble. The agents are then removed concomitant with the formation of fibers. [48] Cellulose is also soluble in many kinds of ionic liquids. [49]

The history of regenerated cellulose is often cited as beginning with George Audemars, who first manufactured regenerated nitrocellulose fibers in 1855. [50] Although these fibers were soft and strong -resembling silk- they had the drawback of being highly flammable. Hilaire de Chardonnet perfected production of nitrocellulose fibers, but manufacturing of these fibers by his process was relatively uneconomical. [50] In 1890, L.H. Despeissis invented the cuprammonium process – which uses a cuprammonium solution to solubilize cellulose – a method still used today for production of artificial silk. [51] In 1891, it was discovered that treatment of cellulose with alkali and carbon disulfide generated a soluble cellulose derivative known as viscose. [50] This process, patented by the founders of the Viscose Development Company, is the most widely used method for manufacturing regenerated cellulose products. Courtaulds purchased the patents for this process in 1904, leading to significant growth of viscose fiber production. [52] By 1931, expiration of patents for the viscose process led to its adoption worldwide. Global production of regenerated cellulose fiber peaked in 1973 at 3,856,000 tons. [50]

Regenerated cellulose can be used to manufacture a wide variety of products. While the first application of regenerated cellulose was as a clothing textile, this class of materials is also used in the production of disposable medical devices as well as fabrication of artificial membranes. [52]

Cellulose esters and ethers

The hydroxyl groups (−OH) of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various reagents to afford derivatives with useful properties like mainly cellulose esters and cellulose ethers (−OR). In principle, although not always in current industrial practice, cellulosic polymers are renewable resources.

Ester derivatives include:

Cellulose esterReagentExampleReagentGroup R
Organic estersOrganic acids Cellulose acetate Acetic acid and acetic anhydride H or −(C=O)CH3
Cellulose triacetate Acetic acid and acetic anhydride−(C=O)CH3
Cellulose propionate Propionic acid H or −(C=O)CH2CH3
Cellulose acetate propionate (CAP)Acetic acid and propanoic acidH or −(C=O)CH3 or −(C=O)CH2CH3
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB)Acetic acid and butyric acid H or −(C=O)CH3 or −(C=O)CH2CH2CH3
Inorganic estersInorganic acids Nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) Nitric acid or another powerful nitrating agentH or −NO2
Cellulose sulfate Sulfuric acid or another powerful sulfating agentH or −SO3H

Cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate are film- and fiber-forming materials that find a variety of uses. Nitrocellulose was initially used as an explosive and was an early film forming material. When plasticized with camphor, nitrocellulose gives celluloid.

Cellulose Ether [53] derivatives include:

Cellulose ethersReagentExampleReagentGroup R = H orWater solubilityApplication E number
Alkyl Halogenoalkanes Methylcellulose Chloromethane −CH3Cold/Hot water-soluble [54] E461
Ethylcellulose (EC) Chloroethane −CH2CH3Water-insolubleA commercial thermoplastic used in coatings, inks, binders, and controlled-release drug tablets [55] E462
Ethyl methyl celluloseChloromethane and chloroethane−CH3 or −CH2CH3E465
Hydroxyalkyl Epoxides Hydroxyethyl cellulose Ethylene oxide −CH2CH2OHCold/hot water-solubleGelling and thickening agent [56]
Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) Propylene oxide −CH2CH(OH)CH3Cold water-solublefilming properties, coating properties, pharmaceuticals, cultural heritage restoration, electronic applications, cosmetic sector [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] E463
Hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose Chloromethane and ethylene oxide−CH3 or −CH2CH2OHCold water-solubleProduction of cellulose films
Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC)Chloromethane and propylene oxide−CH3 or −CH2CH(OH)CH3Cold water-solubleViscosity modifier, gelling, foaming and binding agentE464
Ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose Chloroethane and ethylene oxide−CH2CH3 or −CH2CH2OHE467
CarboxyalkylHalogenated carboxylic acids Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) Chloroacetic acid −CH2COOHCold/Hot water-solubleOften used as its sodium salt, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC)E466

The sodium carboxymethyl cellulose can be cross-linked to give the croscarmellose sodium (E468) for use as a disintegrant in pharmaceutical formulations. Furthermore, by the covalent attachment of thiol groups to cellulose ethers such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose or hydroxyethyl cellulose mucoadhesive and permeation enhancing properties can be introduced. [62] [63] [64] Thiolated cellulose derivatives (see thiomers) exhibit also high binding properties for metal ions. [65] [66]

Commercial applications

A strand of cellulose (conformation Ia), showing the hydrogen bonds (dashed) within and between cellulose molecules. Cellulose strand.svg
A strand of cellulose (conformation Iα), showing the hydrogen bonds (dashed) within and between cellulose molecules.

Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and from cotton. [6]

Aspirational

Energy crops:

The major combustible component of non-food energy crops is cellulose, with lignin second. Non-food energy crops produce more usable energy than edible energy crops (which have a large starch component), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water resources. [72] Typical non-food energy crops include industrial hemp, switchgrass, Miscanthus , Salix (willow), and Populus (poplar) species. A strain of Clostridium bacteria found in zebra dung, can convert nearly any form of cellulose into butanol fuel. [73] [74] [75] [76]

Another possible application is as Insect repellents. [77]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biopolymer</span> Polymer produced by a living organism

Biopolymers are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Like other polymers, biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded in chains to form larger molecules. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides. The Polynucleotides, RNA and DNA, are long polymers of nucleotides. Polypeptides include proteins and shorter polymers of amino acids; some major examples include collagen, actin, and fibrin. Polysaccharides are linear or branched chains of sugar carbohydrates; examples include starch, cellulose, and alginate. Other examples of biopolymers include natural rubbers, suberin and lignin, cutin and cutan, melanin, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cell wall</span> Outermost layer of some cells

A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds some cell types, found immediately outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier. Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand osmotic pressure and mechanical stress. While absent in many eukaryotes, including animals, cell walls are prevalent in other organisms such as fungi, algae and plants, and are commonly found in most prokaryotes, with the exception of mollicute bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glucose</span> Naturally produced monosaccharide

Glucose is a sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight, where it is used to make cellulose in cell walls, the most abundant carbohydrate in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemicellulose</span> Class of plant cell wall polysaccharides

A hemicellulose is one of a number of heteropolymers, such as arabinoxylans, present along with cellulose in almost all terrestrial plant cell walls. Cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis. Hemicelluloses are branched, shorter in length than cellulose, and also show a propensity to crystallize. They can be hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as a myriad of hemicellulase enzymes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polysaccharide</span> Long carbohydrate polymers comprising starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin

Polysaccharides, or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long-chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with water (hydrolysis) using amylase enzymes as catalyst, which produces constituent sugars. They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen and galactogen and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Starch</span> Glucose polymer used as energy store in plants

Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets, and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as wheat, potatoes, maize (corn), rice, and cassava (manioc).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fiber</span> Natural or synthetic substance made of long, thin filaments

Fiber or fibre is a natural or artificial substance that is significantly longer than it is wide. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest engineering materials often incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lignin</span> Structural phenolic polymer in plant cell walls

Lignin is a class of complex organic polymers that form key structural materials in the support tissues of most plants. Lignins are particularly important in the formation of cell walls, especially in wood and bark, because they lend rigidity and do not rot easily. Chemically, lignins are polymers made by cross-linking phenolic precursors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cellulase</span> Class of enzymes

Cellulase is any of several enzymes produced chiefly by fungi, bacteria, and protozoans that catalyze cellulolysis, the decomposition of cellulose and of some related polysaccharides:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amylopectin</span> Chemical compound

Amylopectin is a water-insoluble polysaccharide and highly branched polymer of α-glucose units found in plants. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylose.

Cellulosic ethanol is ethanol produced from cellulose rather than from the plant's seeds or fruit. It can be produced from grasses, wood, algae, or other plants. It is generally discussed for use as a biofuel. The carbon dioxide that plants absorb as they grow offsets some of the carbon dioxide emitted when ethanol made from them is burned, so cellulosic ethanol fuel has the potential to have a lower carbon footprint than fossil fuels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulp mill</span>

A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fiber sources into a thick fiber board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical, or fully chemical methods. The finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural fiber</span> Fibers obtained from natural sources such as plants, animals or minerals without synthesis

Natural fibers or natural fibres are fibers that are produced by geological processes, or from the bodies of plants or animals. They can be used as a component of composite materials, where the orientation of fibers impacts the properties. Natural fibers can also be matted into sheets to make paper or felt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lignocellulosic biomass</span> Plant dry matter

Lignocellulose refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels. It is composed of two kinds of carbohydrate polymers, cellulose and hemicellulose, and an aromatic-rich polymer called lignin. Any biomass rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are commonly referred to as lignocellulosic biomass. Each component has a distinct chemical behavior. Being a composite of three very different components makes the processing of lignocellulose challenging. The evolved resistance to degradation or even separation is referred to as recalcitrance. Overcoming this recalcitrance to produce useful, high value products requires a combination of heat, chemicals, enzymes, and microorganisms. These carbohydrate-containing polymers contain different sugar monomers and they are covalently bound to lignin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cellulose synthase (UDP-forming)</span> Cellulose synthesizing enzyme in plants and bacteria

The UDP-forming form of cellulose synthase is the main enzyme that produces cellulose. Systematically, it is known as UDP-glucose:(1→4)-β-D-glucan 4-β-D-glucosyltransferase in enzymology. It catalyzes the chemical reaction:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cellulose fiber</span> Fibers made with ethers or esters of cellulose

Cellulose fibers are fibers made with ethers or esters of cellulose, which can be obtained from the bark, wood or leaves of plants, or from other plant-based material. In addition to cellulose, the fibers may also contain hemicellulose and lignin, with different percentages of these components altering the mechanical properties of the fibers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanocellulose</span> Material composed of nanosized cellulose fibrils

Nanocellulose is a term referring to nano-structured cellulose. This may be either cellulose nanocrystal, cellulose nanofibers (CNF) also called nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), or bacterial nanocellulose, which refers to nano-structured cellulose produced by bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bacterial cellulose</span> Organic compound

Bacterial cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C
6
H
10
O
5
)
n
produced by certain types of bacteria. While cellulose is a basic structural material of most plants, it is also produced by bacteria, principally of the genera Komagataeibacter, Acetobacter, Sarcina ventriculi and Agrobacterium. Bacterial, or microbial, cellulose has different properties from plant cellulose and is characterized by high purity, strength, moldability and increased water holding ability. In natural habitats, the majority of bacteria synthesize extracellular polysaccharides, such as cellulose, which form protective envelopes around the cells. While bacterial cellulose is produced in nature, many methods are currently being investigated to enhance cellulose growth from cultures in laboratories as a large-scale process. By controlling synthesis methods, the resulting microbial cellulose can be tailored to have specific desirable properties. For example, attention has been given to the bacteria Komagataeibacter xylinus due to its cellulose's unique mechanical properties and applications to biotechnology, microbiology, and materials science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transparent wood composite</span>

Transparent wood composites are novel wood materials which have up to 90% transparency. Some have better mechanical properties than wood itself. They were made for the first time in 1992. These materials are significantly more biodegradable than glass and plastics. Transparent wood is also shatterproof, making it suitable for applications like cell phone screens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paul Dauenhauer</span> American chemical engineer and researcher

Paul Dauenhauer, a chemical engineer and MacArthur Fellow, is the Lanny & Charlotte Schmidt Professor at the University of Minnesota (UMN). He is recognized for his research in catalysis science and engineering, especially, his contributions to the understanding of the catalytic breakdown of cellulose to renewable chemicals, the invention of oleo-furan surfactants, and the development of catalytic resonance theory and programmable catalysts.

References

  1. Nishiyama Y, Langan P, Chanzy H (2002). "Crystal Structure and Hydrogen-Bonding System in Cellulose Iβ from Synchrotron X-ray and Neutron Fiber Diffraction". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124 (31): 9074–9082. doi:10.1021/ja0257319. PMID   12149011.
  2. 1 2 3 4 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0110". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
  3. 1 2 Crawford, R. L. (1981). Lignin biodegradation and transformation. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN   978-0-471-05743-7.
  4. Updegraff D. M. (1969). "Semimicro determination of cellulose in biological materials". Analytical Biochemistry. 32 (3): 420–424. doi:10.1016/S0003-2697(69)80009-6. PMID   5361396.
  5. Romeo T (2008). Bacterial biofilms. Berlin: Springer. pp. 258–263. ISBN   978-3-540-75418-3.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Klemm D, Heublein, Brigitte, Fink, Hans-Peter, Bohn, Andreas (2005). "Cellulose: Fascinating Biopolymer and Sustainable Raw Material". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44 (22): 3358–3393. doi:10.1002/anie.200460587. PMID   15861454.
  7. Cellulose. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved January 11, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  8. Chemical Composition of Wood. Archived October 13, 2018, at the Wayback Machine . ipst.gatech.edu.
  9. Piotrowski, Stephan and Carus, Michael (May 2011) Multi-criteria evaluation of lignocellulosic niche crops for use in biorefinery processes Archived April 3, 2021, at the Wayback Machine . nova-Institut GmbH, Hürth, Germany.
  10. Mantanis GI, Young RA, Rowell RM (1995). "Swelling of compressed cellulose fiber webs in organic liquids". Cellulose. 2 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1007/BF00812768. ISSN   0969-0239.
  11. Payen, A. (1838) "Mémoire sur la composition du tissu propre des plantes et du ligneux" (Memoir on the composition of the tissue of plants and of woody [material]), Comptes rendus, vol. 7, pp. 1052–1056. Payen added appendices to this paper on December 24, 1838 (see: Comptes rendus, vol. 8, p. 169 (1839)) and on February 4, 1839 (see: Comptes rendus, vol. 9, p. 149 (1839)). A committee of the French Academy of Sciences reviewed Payen's findings in : Jean-Baptiste Dumas (1839) "Rapport sur un mémoire de M. Payen, reltes rendus, vol. 8, pp. 51–53. In this report, the word "cellulose" is coined and author points out the similarity between the empirical formula of cellulose and that of "dextrine" (starch). The above articles are reprinted in: Brongniart and Guillemin, eds., Annales des sciences naturelles ..., 2nd series, vol. 11 (Paris, France: Crochard et Cie., 1839), [ https://books.google.com/books?id=VDRsFWwgUo4C&pg=PA21 pp. 21–31].
  12. Young R (1986). Cellulose structure modification and hydrolysis. New York: Wiley. ISBN   978-0-471-82761-0.
  13. Kobayashi S, Kashiwa, Keita, Shimada, Junji, Kawasaki, Tatsuya, Shoda, Shin-ichiro (1992). "Enzymatic polymerization: The first in vitro synthesis of cellulose via nonbiosynthetic path catalyzed by cellulase". Makromolekulare Chemie. Macromolecular Symposia. 54–55 (1): 509–518. doi:10.1002/masy.19920540138.
  14. Bishop, Charles A., ed. (2007). Vacuum deposition onto webs, films, and foils. Elsevier Science. p. 165. ISBN   978-0-8155-1535-7.
  15. Dauenhauer P, Krumm C, Pfaendtner J (2016). "Millisecond Pulsed Films Unify the Mechanisms of Cellulose Fragmentation". Chemistry of Materials. 28 (1): 0001. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b00580. OSTI   1865816.
  16. Wymer CE (1994). "Ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass: Technology, economics, and opportunities". Bioresource Technology. 50 (1): 5. Bibcode:1994BiTec..50....3W. doi:10.1016/0960-8524(94)90214-3.
  17. Bidhendi AJ, Geitmann A (January 2016). "Relating the mechanical properties of the primary plant cell wall" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Botany. 67 (2): 449–461. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erv535 . PMID   26689854. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 13, 2018.
  18. Bidhendi AJ, Chebli Y, Geitmann A (May 2020). "Fluorescence Visualization of Cellulose and Pectin in the Primary Plant Cell Wall". Journal of Microscopy. 278 (3): 164–181. doi:10.1111/jmi.12895. PMID   32270489. S2CID   215619998.
  19. Deguchi S, Tsujii K, Horikoshi K (2006). "Cooking cellulose in hot and compressed water". Chemical Communications (31): 3293–5. doi:10.1039/b605812d. PMID   16883414.
  20. Structure and morphology of cellulose Archived April 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine by Serge Pérez and William Mackie, CERMAV-CNRS, 2001. Chapter IV.
  21. Chen H (2014). "Chemical Composition and Structure of Natural Lignocellulose". Biotechnology of Lignocellulose: Theory and Practice (PDF). Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 25–71. ISBN   978-94-007-6897-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 13, 2016.
  22. Saito T, Kimura S, Nishiyama Y, Isogai A (August 2007). "Cellulose Nanofibers Prepared by TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation of Native Cellulose". Biomacromolecules. 8 (8): 2485–2491. doi:10.1021/bm0703970. PMID   17630692. Archived from the original on April 7, 2020. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  23. Peng, B. L., Dhar, N., Liu, H. L., Tam, K. C. (2011). "Chemistry and applications of nanocrystalline cellulose and its derivatives: A nanotechnology perspective" (PDF). The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering. 89 (5): 1191–1206. doi:10.1002/cjce.20554. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
  24. Revol J, Bradford H, Giasson J, Marchessault R, Gray D (June 1992). "Helicoidal self-ordering of cellulose microfibrils in aqueous suspension". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 14 (3): 170–172. doi:10.1016/S0141-8130(05)80008-X. PMID   1390450. Archived from the original on April 7, 2020. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  25. De France KJ, Hoare T, Cranston ED (April 26, 2017). "Review of Hydrogels and Aerogels Containing Nanocellulose". Chemistry of Materials. 29 (11): 4609–4631. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00531 .
  26. Pranger L, Tannenbaum R (2008). "Biobased Nanocomposites Prepared by in Situ Polymerization of Furfuryl Alcohol with Cellulose Whiskers or Montmorillonite Clay". Macromolecules. 41 (22): 8682–8687. Bibcode:2008MaMol..41.8682P. doi:10.1021/ma8020213. Archived from the original on December 30, 2023. Retrieved June 19, 2023.
  27. Kalashnikova I, Bizot H, Cathala B, Capron I (June 21, 2011). "New Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Bacterial Cellulose Nanocrystals". Langmuir. 27 (12): 7471–7479. doi:10.1021/la200971f. PMID   21604688.
  28. Kimura S, Laosinchai W, Itoh T, Cui X, Linder CR, Brown Jr RM (1999). "Immunogold labeling of rosette terminal cellulose-synthesizing complexes in the vascular plant vigna angularis". The Plant Cell. 11 (11): 2075–86. doi:10.2307/3871010. JSTOR   3871010. PMC   144118 . PMID   10559435.
  29. Taylor NG (2003). "Interactions among three distinct CesA proteins essential for cellulose synthesis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (3): 1450–1455. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.1450T. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0337628100 . PMC   298793 . PMID   12538856.
  30. Richmond TA, Somerville CR (October 2000). "The Cellulose Synthase Superfamily". Plant Physiology. 124 (2): 495–498. doi:10.1104/pp.124.2.495. PMC   1539280 . PMID   11027699.
  31. 1 2 Omadjela O, Narahari A, Strumillo J, Mélida H, Mazur O, Bulone V, et al. (October 29, 2013). "BcsA and BcsB form the catalytically active core of bacterial cellulose synthase sufficient for in vitro cellulose synthesis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (44): 17856–61. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11017856O. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1314063110 . PMC   3816479 . PMID   24127606.
  32. Popper ZA, Michel G, Hervé C, Domozych DS, Willats WG, Tuohy MG, et al. (2011). "Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: from algae to flowering plants". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 62: 567–90. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809. hdl: 10379/6762 . PMID   21351878. S2CID   11961888.
  33. Peng L, Kawagoe Y, Hogan P, Delmer D (2002). "Sitosterol-beta-glucoside as primer for cellulose synthesis in plants". Science. 295 (5552): 147–50. Bibcode:2002Sci...295..147P. doi:10.1126/science.1064281. PMID   11778054. S2CID   83564483.
  34. Endean, R (1961). "The Test of the Ascidian, Phallusia mammillata" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. 102 (1): 107–117. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2014.
  35. Barkalow, David G., Whistler, Roy L. (2014). "Cellulose". AccessScience. doi:10.1036/1097-8542.118200.
  36. Ignatyev I, Doorslaer, Charlie Van, Mertens, Pascal G.N., Binnemans, Koen, Vos, Dirk. E. de (2011). "Synthesis of glucose esters from cellulose in ionic liquids". Holzforschung. 66 (4): 417–425. doi:10.1515/hf.2011.161. S2CID   101737591. Archived from the original on August 30, 2017. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
  37. La Reau A, Suen G (2018). "The Ruminococci: key symbionts of the gut ecosystem". Journal of Microbiology. 56 (3): 199–208. doi:10.1007/s12275-018-8024-4. PMID   29492877. S2CID   3578123.
  38. Bowen R. "Digestive Function of Horses". www.vivo.colostate.edu. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved September 25, 2020.
  39. Tokuda G, Watanabe H (June 22, 2007). "Hidden cellulases in termites: revision of an old hypothesis". Biology Letters. 3 (3): 336–339. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0073. PMC   2464699 . PMID   17374589.
  40. Payne CM, Knott BC, Mayes HB, Hansson H, Himmel ME, Sandgren M, et al. (2015). "Fungal Cellulases". Chemical Reviews. 115 (3): 1308–1448. doi: 10.1021/cr500351c . PMID   25629559.
  41. Mettler, Matthew S., Vlachos, Dionisios G., Dauenhauer, Paul J. (2012). "Top Ten Fundamental Challenges of Biomass Pyrolysis for Biofuels". Energy & Environmental Science. 5 (7): 7797. doi:10.1039/C2EE21679E.
  42. Czernik S, Bridgwater AV (2004). "Overview of Applications of Biomass Fast Pyrolysis Oil". Energy & Fuels. Energy & Fuels, American Chemical Society. 18 (2): 590–598. doi:10.1021/ef034067u. S2CID   49332510.
  43. Dauenhauer PJ, Colby JL, Balonek CM, Suszynski WJ, Schmidt LD (2009). "Reactive Boiling of Cellulose for Integrated Catalysis through an Intermediate Liquid". Green Chemistry. 11 (10): 1555. doi:10.1039/B915068B. S2CID   96567659.
  44. Teixeira AR, Mooney KG, Kruger JS, Williams CL, Suszynski WJ, Schmidt LD, et al. (2011). "Aerosol Generation by Reactive Boiling Ejection of Molten Cellulose". Energy & Environmental Science. Energy & Environmental Science, Royal Society of Chemistry. 4 (10): 4306. doi:10.1039/C1EE01876K. Archived from the original on August 31, 2017. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
  45. Mettler MS, Mushrif SH, Paulsen AD, Javadekar AD, Vlachos DG, Dauenhauer PJ (2012). "Revealing pyrolysis chemistry for biofuels production: Conversion of cellulose to furans and small oxygenates". Energy Environ. Sci. 5: 5414–5424. doi:10.1039/C1EE02743C. Archived from the original on August 31, 2017. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
  46. Mettler MS, Paulsen AD, Vlachos DG, Dauenhauer PJ (2012). "Pyrolytic Conversion of Cellulose to Fuels: Levoglucosan Deoxygenation via Elimination and Cyclization within Molten Biomass". Energy & Environmental Science. 5 (7): 7864. doi:10.1039/C2EE21305B.
  47. Gibson LJ (2013). "The hierarchical structure and mechanics of plant materials". Journal of the Royal Society Interface . 9 (76): 2749–2766. doi:10.1098/rsif.2012.0341. PMC   3479918 . PMID   22874093.
  48. Stenius P (2000). "Ch. 1". Forest Products Chemistry. Papermaking Science and Technology. Vol. 3. Finland: Fapet OY. p. 35. ISBN   978-952-5216-03-5.
  49. Wang H, Gurau G, Rogers RD (2012). "Ionic liquid processing of cellulose". Chemical Society Reviews. 41 (4): 1519–37. doi:10.1039/C2CS15311D. PMID   22266483.
  50. 1 2 3 4 Abetz V (2005). Encyclopedia of polymer science and technology (Wird aktualisiert. ed.). [Hoboken, N.J.]: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN   978-0-471-44026-0.
  51. Woodings C (2001). Regenerated cellulose fibres. [Manchester]: The Textile Institute. ISBN   978-1-85573-459-3.
  52. 1 2 Borbély É (2008). "Lyocell, the New Generation of Regenerated Cellulose". Acta Polytechnica Hungarica. 5 (3).
  53. "Cellulose Ether". methylcellulose.net. March 5, 2023. Archived from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
  54. "Methyl Cellulose". kimacellulose.com. Archived from the original on April 15, 2023. Retrieved April 15, 2023.
  55. Maita P (2023). "Toward Sustainable Electronics: Exploiting the Potential of a Biodegradable Cellulose Blend for Photolithographic Processes and Eco-Friendly Devices". Advanced Materials Technologies. 1 (9). doi:10.1002/admt.202301282. hdl: 2108/345525 .
  56. Orlanducci P (2022). "Engineered surface for high performance electrodes on paper". Applied Surface Science. 608. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2022.155117.
  57. Maita P (2023). "Toward Sustainable Electronics: Exploiting the Potential of a Biodegradable Cellulose Blend for Photolithographic Processes and Eco-Friendly Devices". Advanced Materials Technologies. 1 (9). doi:10.1002/admt.202301282. hdl: 2108/345525 .
  58. Orlanducci P (2022). "Engineered surface for high performance electrodes on paper". Applied Surface Science. 608. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2022.155117.
  59. Orlanducci P (2022). "A Sustainable Hydroxypropyl Cellulose-Nanodiamond Composite for Flexible Electronic Applications". Gels. 12 (8): 783. doi: 10.3390/gels8120783 . PMC   9777684 . PMID   36547307.
  60. Orlanducci P (2022). "Nanodiamond composites: A new material for the preservation of parchment". Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 32 (139). doi:10.1002/app.52742. S2CID   249654979.
  61. Brunetti P (2020). "Nanodiamond-Based Separators for Supercapacitors Realized on Paper Substrates". Energy Technology. 6 (8). doi:10.1002/ente.201901233.
  62. Clausen A, Bernkop-Schnürch A (2001). "Thiolated carboxymethylcellulose: in vitro evaluation of its permeation enhancing effect on peptide drugs". Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 51 (1): 25–32. doi:10.1016/s0939-6411(00)00130-2. PMID   11154900.
  63. Rahmat D, Devina C (2022). "Synthesis and characterization of a cationic thiomer based on ethyl cellulose for realization of mucoadhesive tablets and nanoparticles". International Journal of Nanomedicine. 17: 2321–2334. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S321467 . PMC   9130100 . PMID   35645561. S2CID   248952610.
  64. Leonaviciute G, Bonengel S, Mahmood A, Ahmad Idrees M, Bernkop-Schnürch A (2016). "S-protected thiolated hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC): Novel mucoadhesive excipient with improved stability". Carbohydr Polym. 144: 514–521. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.075. PMID   27083843.
  65. Leichner C, Jelkmann M, Bernkop-Schnürch A (2019). "Thiolated polymers: Bioinspired polymers utilizing one of the most important bridging structures in nature". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 151–152: 191–221. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2019.04.007. PMID   31028759. S2CID   135464452.
  66. Seidi F, Saeb MR, Huang Y, Akbari A, Xiao H (2021). "Thiomers of chitosan and cellulose: Effective biosorbents for detection, removal and recovery of metal ions from aqueous medium". The Chemical Records. 21–152 (7): 1876–1896. doi:10.1002/tcr.202100068. PMID   34101343. S2CID   235368517.
  67. Kohman, GT (July 1939). "Cellulose as an insulating material". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 31 (7): 807–817. doi:10.1021/ie50355a005.
  68. Weiner ML, Kotkoskie, Lois A. (2000). Excipient Toxicity and Safety . New York: Dekker. p.  210. ISBN   978-0-8247-8210-8.
  69. Dhingra D, Michael M, Rajput H, Patil RT (2011). "Dietary fibre in foods: A review". Journal of Food Science and Technology. 49 (3): 255–266. doi:10.1007/s13197-011-0365-5. PMC   3614039 . PMID   23729846.
  70. "Zeoform: The eco-friendly building material of the future?". Gizmag.com. August 30, 2013. Archived from the original on October 28, 2013. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
  71. Thoorens G, Krier F, Leclercq B, Carlin B, Evrard B (2014). "Microcrystalline cellulose, a direct compression binder in a quality by design environment--a review". International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 473 (1–2): 64–72. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2014.06.055 . PMID   24993785.
  72. Holt-Gimenez, Eric (2007). Biofuels: Myths of the Agrofuels Transition. Backgrounder. Institute for Food and Development Policy, Oakland, CA. 13:2 Holt-Giménez E. "Biofuels - Myths of the Agrofuels Transition: Parts I & II". Archived from the original on November 16, 2009. Retrieved September 5, 2013.Holt-Giménez E (November 13, 2009). "Biofuels - Myths of the Agrofuels Transition: Parts I & II". Archived from the original on September 6, 2013. Retrieved September 5, 2013.
  73. MullinD, Velankar H.2012.Isolated bacteria, methods for use, and methods for isolation.World patent WO 2012/021678 A2
  74. Sampa Maiti, et al. (December 10, 2015). "Quest for sustainable bio-production and recovery of butanol as a promising solution to fossil fuel". Energy Research. 40 (4): 411–438. doi: 10.1002/er.3458 . S2CID   101240621.
  75. Hobgood Ray, Kathryn (August 25, 2011). "Cars Could Run on Recycled Newspaper, Tulane Scientists Say". Tulane University news webpage. Tulane University. Archived from the original on October 21, 2014. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
  76. Balbo, Laurie (January 29, 2012). "Put a Zebra in Your Tank: A Chemical Crapshoot?". Greenprophet.com. Archived from the original on February 13, 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2012.
  77. Thompson B (April 13, 2023). "Natural treatment could make you almost invisible to mosquito bites". New Atlas. Archived from the original on April 17, 2023. Retrieved April 17, 2023.