In molecular biology, a carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) is a protein domain found in carbohydrate-active enzymes (for example glycoside hydrolases). The majority of these domains have carbohydrate-binding activity. Some of these domains are found on cellulosomalscaffoldin proteins. CBMs were previously known as cellulose-binding domains.[1] CBMs are classified into numerous families, based on amino acid sequence similarity. There are currently (June 2011) 64 families of CBM in the CAZy database.[2]
Carbohydrate-binding module family 1 (CBM1) consists of 36 amino acids. This domain contains 4 conserved cysteine residues which are involved in the formation of two disulfide bonds.
CBM2
Carbohydrate-binding module family 2 (CBM2) contains two conserved cysteines - one at each extremity of the domain - which have been shown [6] to be involved in a disulfide bond. There are also four conserved tryptophans, two of which are involved in cellulose binding.[7][8][9]
CBM3
Carbohydrate-binding module family 3 (CBM3) is involved in cellulose binding [10] and is found associated with a wide range of bacterial glycosyl hydrolases. The structure of this domain is known; it forms a beta sandwich.[11]
CBM4
Carbohydrate-binding module family 4 (CBM4) includes the two cellulose-binding domains, CBD(N1) and CBD(N2), arranged in tandem at the N terminus of the 1,4-beta-glucanase, CenC, from Cellulomonas fimi. These homologous CBMs are distinct in their selectivity for binding amorphous and not crystalline cellulose.[12] Multidimensional heteronuclear nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to determine the tertiary structure of the 152 amino acid N-terminal cellulose-binding domain from C. fimi 1,4-beta-glucanase CenC (CBDN1). The tertiary structure of CBDN1 is strikingly similar to that of the bacterial 1,3-1,4-beta-glucanases, as well as other sugar-binding proteins with jelly-roll folds.[13] CBM4 and CBM9 are closely related.
CBM5
Carbohydrate-binding module family 5 (CBM5) binds chitin.[14] CBM5 and CBM12 are distantly related.
CBM6
Carbohydrate-binding module family 6 (CBM6) is unusual in that it contains two substrate-binding sites, cleft A and cleft B. Cellvibrio mixtus endoglucanase 5A contains two CBM6 domains, the CBM6 domain at the C-terminus displays distinct ligand binding specificities in each of the substrate-binding clefts. Both cleft A and cleft B can bind cello-oligosaccharides, laminarin preferentially binds in cleft A, xylooligosaccharides only bind in cleft A and beta1,4,-beta1,3-mixed linked glucans only bind in cleft B.[15]
CBM9
Carbohydrate-binding module family 9 (CBM9) binds to crystalline cellulose.[16] CBM4 and CBM9 are closely related.
CBM10
Carbohydrate-binding module family 10 (CBM10) is found in two distinct sets of proteins with different functions. Those found in aerobic bacteria bind cellulose (or other carbohydrates); but in anaerobic fungi they are protein binding domains, referred to as dockerin domains. The dockerin domains are believed to be responsible for the assembly of a multiprotein cellulase/hemicellulase complex, similar to the cellulosome found in certain anaerobic bacteria.[17][18]
In anaerobic bacteria that degrade plant cell walls, exemplified by Clostridium thermocellum, the dockerin domains of the catalyticpolypeptides can bind equally well to any cohesin from the same organism. More recently, anaerobic fungi, typified by Piromyces equi, have been suggested to also synthesise a cellulosome complex, although the dockerin sequences of the bacterial and fungalenzymes are completely different.[19] For example, the fungal enzymes contain one, two or three copies of the dockerin sequence in tandem within the catalytic polypeptide. In contrast, all the C. thermocellum cellulosome catalytic components contain a single dockerin domain. The anaerobic bacterial dockerins are homologous to EF hands (calcium-binding motifs) and require calcium for activity whereas the fungal dockerin does not require calcium. Finally, the interaction between cohesin and dockerin appears to be species specific in bacteria, there is almost no species specificity of binding within fungal species and no identified sites that distinguish different species.
The of dockerin from P. equi contains two helical stretches and four short beta-strands which form an antiparallel sheet structure adjacent to an additional short twisted parallel strand. The N- and C-termini are adjacent to each other.[19]
CBM11
Carbohydrate-binding module family 11 (CBM11) is found in a number of bacterial cellulases. One example is the CBM11 of Clostridium thermocellum Cel26A-Cel5E, this domain has been shown to bind both β-1,4-glucan and β-1,3-1,4-mixed linked glucans.[20] CBM11 has beta-sandwich structure with a concave side forming a substrate-binding cleft.[20]
CBM12
Carbohydrate-binding module family 12 (CBM12) comprises two beta-sheets, consisting of two and three antiparallel beta strands respectively. It binds chitin via the aromatic rings of tryptophan residues.[14] CBM5 and CBM12 are distantly related.
CBM14
Carbohydrate-binding module family 14 (CBM14) is also known as the peritrophin-A domain. It is found in chitin binding proteins, particularly the peritrophic matrix proteins of insects and animal chitinases.[21][22][23] Copies of the domain are also found in some baculoviruses. It is an extracellular domain that contains six conserved cysteines that probably form three disulfide bridges. Chitin binding has been demonstrated for a protein containing only two of these domains.[21]
CBM15
Carbohydrate-binding module family 15 (CBM15), found in bacterial enzymes, has been shown to bind to xylan and xylooligosaccharides. It has a beta-jelly roll fold, with a groove on the concave surface of one of the beta-sheets.[3]
CBM17
Carbohydrate-binding module family 17 (CBM17) appears to have a very shallow binding cleft that may be more accessible to cellulose chains in non-crystalline cellulose than the deeper binding clefts of family 4 CBMs.[24] Sequence and structural conservation in families CBM17 and CBM28 suggests that they have evolved through gene duplication and subsequent divergence.[4] CBM17 does not compete with CBM28 modules when binding to non-crystalline cellulose. Different CBMs have been shown to bind to different sites in amorphous cellulose, CBM17 and CBM28 recognise distinct non-overlapping sites in amorphous cellulose.[25]
CBM18
Carbohydrate-binding module family 18 (CBM18) (also known as chitin binding 1 or chitin recognition protein) is found in a number of plant and fungalproteins that bindN-acetylglucosamine (e.g. solanaceouslectins of tomato and potato, plant endochitinases, the wound-induced proteins: hevein, win1 and win2, and the Kluyveromyces lactis killer toxin alpha subunit).[26] The domain may occur in one or more copies and is thought to be involved in recognition or binding of chitin subunits.[27][28] In chitinases, as well as in the potato wound-induced proteins, this 43-residue domain directly follows the signal sequence and is therefore at the N terminus of the mature protein; in the killer toxin alpha subunit it is located in the central section of the protein.
CBM19
Carbohydrate-binding module family 19 (CBM19), found in fungal chitinases, binds chitin.[29]
CBM20
Carbohydrate-binding module family 20 (CBM20) binds to starch.[30][31]
CBM21
Carbohydrate-binding module family 21 (CBM21), found in many eukaryotic proteins involved in glycogen metabolism, binds to glycogen.[32]
CBM25
Carbohydrate-binding module family 25 (CBM25) binds alpha-glucooligosaccharides, particularly those containing alpha-1,6 linkages, and granular starch.[33]
CBM27
Carbohydrate-binding module family 27 (CBM27) binds to beta-1,4-mannooligosaccharides, carobgalactomannan, and konjac glucomannan, but not to cellulose (insoluble and soluble) or soluble birchwood xylan. CBM27 adopts a beta sandwich structure comprising 13 beta strands with a single, small alpha-helix and a single metal atom.[34]
CBM28
Carbohydrate-binding module family 28 (CBM28) does not compete with CBM17 modules when binding to non-crystalline cellulose. Different CBMs have been shown to bind to different sirtes in amorphous cellulose, CBM17 and CBM28 recognise distinct non-overlapping sites in amorphous cellulose. CBM28 has a "beta-jelly roll" topology, which is similar in structure to the CBM17 domains. Sequence and structural conservation in families CBM17 and CBM28 suggests that they have evolved through gene duplication and subsequent divergence.[4][25]
CBM32
Carbohydrate-binding module family 32 (CBM32) binds to diverse substrates, ranging from plant cell wall polysaccharides to complex glycans.[35] The module has so far been found in microorganisms, including archea, eubacteria and fungi.[35] CBM32 adopts a beta-sandwich fold and has a bound metal atom, most often observed to be calcium.[36] CBM32 modules are associated with catalytic modules such as sialidases, B-N-acetylglucosaminidases, α-N-acetylglucosaminidases, mannanases and galactose oxidases.[36]
CBM33
Carbohydrate-binding module family 33 (CBM33) is a chitin-binding domain.[37] It has a budded fibronectin type III fold consisting of two beta-sheets, arranged as a beta-sheet sandwich and a bud consisting of three short helices, located between beta-strands 1 and 2. It binds chitin via conserved polar amino acids.[38] This domain is found in isolation in baculoviral spheroidin and spindolin proteins.
CBM48
Carbohydrate-binding module family 48 (CBM48) is often found in enzymes containing glycosyl hydrolase family 13 catalytic domains. It is found in a range of enzymes that act on branched substrates i.e. isoamylase, pullulanase and branching enzyme. Isoamylase hydrolyses 1,6-alpha-D-glucosidic branch linkages in glycogen, amylopectin and dextrin; 1,4-alpha-glucan branching enzyme functions in the formation of 1,6-glucosidic linkages of glycogen; and pullulanase is a starch-debranching enzyme. CBM48 binds glycogen.[39][40][41][42]
CBM49
Carbohydrate-binding module family 49 (CBM49) is found at the C-terminal of cellulases and in vitro binding studies have shown it to binds to crystalline cellulose.[43]
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↑ Gilkes NR, Claeyssens M, Aebersold R, Henrissat B, Meinke A, Morrison HD, Kilburn DG, Warren RA, Miller RC (December 1991). "Structural and functional relationships in two families of beta-1,4-glycanases". Eur. J. Biochem. 202 (2): 367–77. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1991.tb16384.x. PMID1761039.
↑ Meinke A, Gilkes NR, Kilburn DG, Miller RC, Warren RA (December 1991). "Bacterial cellulose-binding domain-like sequences in eucaryotic polypeptides". Protein Seq. Data Anal. 4 (6): 349–53. PMID1812490.
↑ Xu, G. Y.; Ong, E.; Gilkes, N. R.; Kilburn, D. G.; Muhandiram, D. R.; Harris-Brandts, M.; Carver, J. P.; Kay, L. E.; Harvey, T. S. (1995). "Solution structure of a cellulose-binding domain from Cellulomonas fimi by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy". Biochemistry. 34 (21): 6993–7009. doi:10.1021/bi00021a011. PMID7766609.
↑ Brun E, Johnson PE, Creagh AL, Tomme P, Webster P, Haynes CA, McIntosh LP (March 2000). "Structure and binding specificity of the second N-terminal cellulose-binding domain from Cellulomonas fimi endoglucanase C". Biochemistry. 39 (10): 2445–58. doi:10.1021/bi992079u. PMID10704194.
↑ Johnson PE, Joshi MD, Tomme P, Kilburn DG, McIntosh LP (November 1996). "Structure of the N-terminal cellulose-binding domain of Cellulomonas fimi CenC determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy". Biochemistry. 35 (45): 14381–94. doi:10.1021/bi961612s. PMID8916925.
1 2 Akagi, K. -I.; Watanabe, J.; Hara, M.; Kezuka, Y.; Chikaishi, E.; Yamaguchi, T.; Akutsu, H.; Nonaka, T.; Watanabe, T.; Ikegami, T. (2006). "Identification of the Substrate Interaction Region of the Chitin-Binding Domain of Streptomyces griseus Chitinase C". Journal of Biochemistry. 139 (3): 483–493. doi:10.1093/jb/mvj062. PMID16567413.
↑ Notenboom V, Boraston AB, Chiu P, Freelove AC, Kilburn DG, Rose DR (December 2001). "Recognition of cello-oligosaccharides by a family 17 carbohydrate-binding module: an X-ray crystallographic, thermodynamic and mutagenic study". J. Mol. Biol. 314 (4): 797–806. doi:10.1006/jmbi.2001.5153. PMID11733998.
1 2 Jamal, S.; Nurizzo, D.; Boraston, A. B.; Davies, G. J. (2004). "X-ray Crystal Structure of a Non-crystalline Cellulose-specific Carbohydrate-binding Module: CBM28". Journal of Molecular Biology. 339 (2): 253–258. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2004.03.069. PMID15136030.
↑ Wright HT, Sandrasegaram G, Wright CS (September 1991). "Evolution of a family of N-acetylglucosamine binding proteins containing the disulfide-rich domain of wheat germ agglutinin". J. Mol. Evol. 33 (3): 283–94. Bibcode:1991JMolE..33..283W. doi:10.1007/bf02100680. PMID1757999. S2CID8327744.
↑ Oyama, T.; Kusunoki, M.; Kishimoto, Y.; Takasaki, Y.; Nitta, Y. (1999). "Crystal structure of beta-amylase from Bacillus cereus var. Mycoides at 2.2 a resolution". Journal of Biochemistry. 125 (6): 1120–1130. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a022394. PMID10348915.
↑ Schnellmann, J.; Zeltins, A.; Blaak, H.; Schrempf, H. (1994). "The novel lectin-like protein CHB1 is encoded by a chitin-inducible Streptomyces olivaceoviridis gene and binds specifically to crystalline alpha-chitin of fungi and other organisms". Molecular Microbiology. 13 (5): 807–819. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1994.tb00473.x. PMID7815940. S2CID22470447.
↑ Katsuya, Y.; Mezaki, Y.; Kubota, M.; Matsuura, Y. (1998). "Three-dimensional structure of Pseudomonas isoamylase at 2.2 Å resolution1". Journal of Molecular Biology. 281 (5): 885–897. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1998.1992. PMID9719642.
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