In vitro

Last updated
Cloned plants in vitro Laboratoriia mikroklonal'nogo rozmnozhennia roslin.jpg
Cloned plants in vitro

In vitro (meaning in glass, or in the glass) studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology and its subdisciplines are traditionally done in labware such as test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, and microtiter plates. Studies conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis than can be done with whole organisms; however, results obtained from in vitro experiments may not fully or accurately predict the effects on a whole organism. In contrast to in vitro experiments, in vivo studies are those conducted in living organisms, including humans, known as clinical trials, and whole plants. [1] [2]

Contents

Definition

In vitro (Latin for "in glass"; often not italicized in English usage [3] [4] [5] ) studies are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings, such as microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules. For example, microorganisms or cells can be studied in artificial culture media, and proteins can be examined in solutions. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology, medicine, and their subdisciplines are traditionally done in test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, etc. [6] [7] They now involve the full range of techniques used in molecular biology, such as the omics. [8]

In contrast, studies conducted in living beings (microorganisms, animals, humans, or whole plants) are called in vivo. [9]

Examples

Examples of in vitro studies include: the isolation, growth and identification of cells derived from multicellular organisms (in cell or tissue culture); subcellular components (e.g. mitochondria or ribosomes); cellular or subcellular extracts (e.g. wheat germ or reticulocyte extracts); purified molecules (such as proteins, DNA, or RNA); and the commercial production of antibiotics and other pharmaceutical products. [10] [11] [12] [13] Viruses, which only replicate in living cells, are studied in the laboratory in cell or tissue culture, and many animal virologists refer to such work as being in vitro to distinguish it from in vivo work in whole animals. [14] [15]

Advantages

In vitro studies permit a species-specific, simpler, more convenient, and more detailed analysis than can be done with the whole organism. Just as studies in whole animals more and more replace human trials, so are in vitro studies replacing studies in whole animals.

Simplicity

Living organisms are extremely complex functional systems that are made up of, at a minimum, many tens of thousands of genes, protein molecules, RNA molecules, small organic compounds, inorganic ions, and complexes in an environment that is spatially organized by membranes, and in the case of multicellular organisms, organ systems. [23] [24] These myriad components interact with each other and with their environment in a way that processes food, removes waste, moves components to the correct location, and is responsive to signalling molecules, other organisms, light, sound, heat, taste, touch, and balance.

Top view of a Vitrocell mammalian exposure module "smoking robot", (lid removed) view of four separated wells for cell culture inserts to be exposed to tobacco smoke or an aerosol for an in vitro study of the effects Vitrocell mammalian exposure module-smoking robot.jpg
Top view of a Vitrocell mammalian exposure module "smoking robot", (lid removed) view of four separated wells for cell culture inserts to be exposed to tobacco smoke or an aerosol for an in vitro study of the effects

This complexity makes it difficult to identify the interactions between individual components and to explore their basic biological functions. In vitro work simplifies the system under study, so the investigator can focus on a small number of components. [25] [26]

For example, the identity of proteins of the immune system (e.g. antibodies), and the mechanism by which they recognize and bind to foreign antigens would remain very obscure if not for the extensive use of in vitro work to isolate the proteins, identify the cells and genes that produce them, study the physical properties of their interaction with antigens, and identify how those interactions lead to cellular signals that activate other components of the immune system.

Species specificity

Another advantage of in vitro methods is that human cells can be studied without "extrapolation" from an experimental animal's cellular response. [27] [28] [29]

Convenience, automation

In vitro methods can be miniaturized and automated, yielding high-throughput screening methods for testing molecules in pharmacology or toxicology. [30]

Disadvantages

The primary disadvantage of in vitro experimental studies is that it may be challenging to extrapolate from the results of in vitro work back to the biology of the intact organism. Investigators doing in vitro work must be careful to avoid over-interpretation of their results, which can lead to erroneous conclusions about organismal and systems biology. [31] [32]

For example, scientists developing a new viral drug to treat an infection with a pathogenic virus (e.g., HIV-1) may find that a candidate drug functions to prevent viral replication in an in vitro setting (typically cell culture). However, before this drug is used in the clinic, it must progress through a series of in vivo trials to determine if it is safe and effective in intact organisms (typically small animals, primates, and humans in succession). Typically, most candidate drugs that are effective in vitro prove to be ineffective in vivo because of issues associated with delivery of the drug to the affected tissues, toxicity towards essential parts of the organism that were not represented in the initial in vitro studies, or other issues. [33]

In vitro test batteries

A method which could help decrease animal testing is the use of in vitro batteries, where several in vitro assays are compiled to cover multiple endpoints. Within developmental neurotoxicity and reproductive toxicity there are hopes for test batteries to become easy screening methods for prioritization for which chemicals to be risk assessed and in which order. [34] [35] [36] [37] Within ecotoxicology in vitro test batteries are already in use for regulatory purpose and for toxicological evaluation of chemicals. [38] In vitro tests can also be combined with in vivo testing to make a in vitro in vivo test battery, for example for pharmaceutical testing. [39]

In vitro to in vivo extrapolation

Results obtained from in vitro experiments cannot usually be transposed, as is, to predict the reaction of an entire organism in vivo. Building a consistent and reliable extrapolation procedure from in vitro results to in vivo is therefore extremely important. Solutions include:

These two approaches are not incompatible; better in vitro systems provide better data to mathematical models. However, increasingly sophisticated in vitro experiments collect increasingly numerous, complex, and challenging data to integrate. Mathematical models, such as systems biology models, are much needed here. [42]

Extrapolating in pharmacology

In pharmacology, IVIVE can be used to approximate pharmacokinetics (PK) or pharmacodynamics (PD).[ citation needed ] Since the timing and intensity of effects on a given target depend on the concentration time course of candidate drug (parent molecule or metabolites) at that target site, in vivo tissue and organ sensitivities can be completely different or even inverse of those observed on cells cultured and exposed in vitro. That indicates that extrapolating effects observed in vitro needs a quantitative model of in vivo PK. Physiologically based PK (PBPK) models are generally accepted to be central to the extrapolations. [43]

In the case of early effects or those without intercellular communications, the same cellular exposure concentration is assumed to cause the same effects, both qualitatively and quantitatively, in vitro and in vivo . In these conditions, developing a simple PD model of the dose–response relationship observed in vitro, and transposing it without changes to predict in vivo effects is not enough. [44]

See also

Related Research Articles

Studies that are in vivo are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms or cells, usually animals, including humans, and plants, as opposed to a tissue extract or dead organism. This is not to be confused with experiments done in vitro, i.e., in a laboratory environment using test tubes, Petri dishes, etc. Examples of investigations in vivo include: the pathogenesis of disease by comparing the effects of bacterial infection with the effects of purified bacterial toxins; the development of non-antibiotics, antiviral drugs, and new drugs generally; and new surgical procedures. Consequently, animal testing and clinical trials are major elements of in vivo research. In vivo testing is often employed over in vitro because it is better suited for observing the overall effects of an experiment on a living subject. In drug discovery, for example, verification of efficacy in vivo is crucial, because in vitro assays can sometimes yield misleading results with drug candidate molecules that are irrelevant in vivo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxicology</span> Study of substances harmful to living organisms

Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants. The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage, duration of exposure, route of exposure, species, age, sex, and environment. Toxicologists are experts on poisons and poisoning. There is a movement for evidence-based toxicology as part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. Toxicology is currently contributing to the field of cancer research, since some toxins can be used as drugs for killing tumor cells. One prime example of this is ribosome-inactivating proteins, tested in the treatment of leukemia.

<i>Xenopus</i> Genus of amphibians

Xenopus is a genus of highly aquatic frogs native to sub-Saharan Africa. Twenty species are currently described within it. The two best-known species of this genus are Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis, which are commonly studied as model organisms for developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, neuroscience and for modelling human disease and birth defects.

In vitro toxicity testing is the scientific analysis of the toxic effects of chemical substances on cultured bacteria or mammalian cells. In vitro testing methods are employed primarily to identify potentially hazardous chemicals and/or to confirm the lack of certain toxic properties in the early stages of the development of potentially useful new substances such as therapeutic drugs, agricultural chemicals and food additives.

Haptens are small molecules that elicit an immune response only when attached to a large carrier such as a protein; the carrier may be one that also does not elicit an immune response by itself. The mechanisms of absence of immune response may vary and involve complex immunological interactions, but can include absent or insufficient co-stimulatory signals from antigen-presenting cells.

Genotoxicity is the property of chemical agents that damage the genetic information within a cell causing mutations, which may lead to cancer. While genotoxicity is often confused with mutagenicity, all mutagens are genotoxic, but some genotoxic substances are not mutagenic. The alteration can have direct or indirect effects on the DNA: the induction of mutations, mistimed event activation, and direct DNA damage leading to mutations. The permanent, heritable changes can affect either somatic cells of the organism or germ cells to be passed on to future generations. Cells prevent expression of the genotoxic mutation by either DNA repair or apoptosis; however, the damage may not always be fixed leading to mutagenesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Morpholino</span> Chemical compound

A Morpholino, also known as a Morpholino oligomer and as a phosphorodiamidate Morpholino oligomer (PMO), is a type of oligomer molecule used in molecular biology to modify gene expression. Its molecular structure contains DNA bases attached to a backbone of methylenemorpholine rings linked through phosphorodiamidate groups. Morpholinos block access of other molecules to small specific sequences of the base-pairing surfaces of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Morpholinos are used as research tools for reverse genetics by knocking down gene function.

Bioinorganic chemistry is a field that examines the role of metals in biology. Bioinorganic chemistry includes the study of both natural phenomena such as the behavior of metalloproteins as well as artificially introduced metals, including those that are non-essential, in medicine and toxicology. Many biological processes such as respiration depend upon molecules that fall within the realm of inorganic chemistry. The discipline also includes the study of inorganic models or mimics that imitate the behaviour of metalloproteins.

Toxicogenomics is a subdiscipline of pharmacology that deals with the collection, interpretation, and storage of information about gene and protein activity within a particular cell or tissue of an organism in response to exposure to toxic substances. Toxicogenomics combines toxicology with genomics or other high-throughput molecular profiling technologies such as transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics. Toxicogenomics endeavors to elucidate the molecular mechanisms evolved in the expression of toxicity, and to derive molecular expression patterns that predict toxicity or the genetic susceptibility to it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phototoxicity</span> Chemically-induced skin irritation following exposure to light

Phototoxicity, also called photoirritation, is a chemically induced skin irritation, requiring light, that does not involve the immune system. It is a type of photosensitivity.

A chemosterilant is a chemical compound that causes reproductive sterility in an organism. Chemosterilants are particularly useful in controlling the population of species that are known to cause disease, such as insects, or species that are, in general, economically damaging. The sterility induced by chemosterilants can have temporary or permanent effects. Chemosterilants can be used to target one or both sexes, and it prevents the organism from advancing to be sexually functional. They may be used to control pest populations by sterilizing males. The need for chemosterilants is a direct consequence of the limitations of insecticides. Insecticides are most effective in regions in which there is high vector density in conjunction with endemic transmission, and this may not always be the case. Additionally, the insects themselves will develop a resistance to the insecticide either on the target protein level or through avoidance of the insecticide in what is called a behavioral resistance. If an insect that has been treated with a chemosterilant mates with a fertile insect, no offspring will be produced. The intention is to keep the percent of sterile insects within a population constant, such that with each generation, there will be fewer offspring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternatives to animal testing</span> Test methods that avoid the use of animals

Alternatives to animal testing are the development and implementation of test methods that avoid the use of live animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxicology testing</span> Biochemical process

Toxicology testing, also known as safety assessment, or toxicity testing, is the process of determining the degree to which a substance of interest negatively impacts the normal biological functions of an organism, given a certain exposure duration, route of exposure, and substance concentration.

An organ-on-a-chip (OOC) is a multi-channel 3-D microfluidic cell culture, integrated circuit (chip) that simulates the activities, mechanics and physiological response of an entire organ or an organ system. It constitutes the subject matter of significant biomedical engineering research, more precisely in bio-MEMS. The convergence of labs-on-chips (LOCs) and cell biology has permitted the study of human physiology in an organ-specific context. By acting as a more sophisticated in vitro approximation of complex tissues than standard cell culture, they provide the potential as an alternative to animal models for drug development and toxin testing.

Phenotypic screening is a type of screening used in biological research and drug discovery to identify substances such as small molecules, peptides, or RNAi that alter the phenotype of a cell or an organism in a desired manner. Phenotypic screening must be followed up with identification and validation, often through the use of chemoproteomics, to identify the mechanisms through which a phenotypic hit works.

Chemical genetics is the investigation of the function of proteins and signal transduction pathways in cells by the screening of chemical libraries of small molecules. Chemical genetics is analogous to classical genetic screen where random mutations are introduced in organisms, the phenotype of these mutants is observed, and finally the specific gene mutation (genotype) that produced that phenotype is identified. In chemical genetics, the phenotype is disturbed not by introduction of mutations, but by exposure to small molecule tool compounds. Phenotypic screening of chemical libraries is used to identify drug targets or to validate those targets in experimental models of disease. Recent applications of this topic have been implicated in signal transduction, which may play a role in discovering new cancer treatments. Chemical genetics can serve as a unifying study between chemistry and biology. The approach was first proposed by Tim Mitchison in 1994 in an opinion piece in the journal Chemistry & Biology entitled "Towards a pharmacological genetics".

A 3D cell culture is an artificially created environment in which biological cells are permitted to grow or interact with their surroundings in all three dimensions. Unlike 2D environments, a 3D cell culture allows cells in vitro to grow in all directions, similar to how they would in vivo. These three-dimensional cultures are usually grown in bioreactors, small capsules in which the cells can grow into spheroids, or 3D cell colonies. Approximately 300 spheroids are usually cultured per bioreactor.

In vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) refers to the qualitative or quantitative transposition of experimental results or observations made in vitro to predict phenomena in vivo, biological organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioassay</span> Analytical method to determine potency and effect of a substance

A bioassay is an analytical method to determine the potency or effect of a substance by its effect on living animals or plants, or on living cells or tissues. A bioassay can be either quantal or quantitative, direct or indirect. If the measured response is binary, the assay is quantal; if not, it is quantitative.

References

  1. "In vitro methods - ECHA". echa.europa.eu. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  2. Toxicity, National Research Council (US) Subcommittee on Reproductive and Developmental (2001). Experimental Animal and In Vitro Study Designs. National Academies Press (US).
  3. Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, archived from the original on 2020-10-10, retrieved 2014-04-20.
  4. Iverson, Cheryl; et al., eds. (2007). "12.1.1 Use of Italics". AMA Manual of Style (10th ed.). Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-517633-9.
  5. American Psychological Association (2010), "4.21 Use of Italics", The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.), Washington, DC, USA: APA, ISBN   978-1-4338-0562-2.
  6. "In vitro methods - ECHA". echa.europa.eu. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  7. Toxicity, National Research Council (US) Subcommittee on Reproductive and Developmental (2001). Experimental Animal and In Vitro Study Designs. National Academies Press (US).
  8. "Omics technologies in chemical testing - OECD". www.oecd.org. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  9. Toxicity, National Research Council (US) Subcommittee on Reproductive and Developmental (2001). Experimental Animal and In Vitro Study Designs. National Academies Press (US).
  10. Spielmann, Horst; Goldberg, Alan M. (1999-01-01), Marquardt, Hans; Schäfer, Siegfried G.; McClellan, Roger; Welsch, Frank (eds.), "Chapter 49 - In Vitro Methods", Toxicology, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 1131–1138, doi:10.1016/b978-012473270-4/50108-5, ISBN   978-0-12-473270-4 , retrieved 2023-04-11
  11. Connolly, Niamh M. C.; Theurey, Pierre; Adam-Vizi, Vera; Bazan, Nicolas G.; Bernardi, Paolo; Bolaños, Juan P.; Culmsee, Carsten; Dawson, Valina L.; Deshmukh, Mohanish; Duchen, Michael R.; Düssmann, Heiko; Fiskum, Gary; Galindo, Maria F.; Hardingham, Giles E.; Hardwick, J. Marie (March 2018). "Guidelines on experimental methods to assess mitochondrial dysfunction in cellular models of neurodegenerative diseases". Cell Death & Differentiation. 25 (3): 542–572. doi:10.1038/s41418-017-0020-4. ISSN   1476-5403. PMC   5864235 . PMID   29229998.
  12. Hammerling, Michael J.; Fritz, Brian R.; Yoesep, Danielle J.; Kim, Do Soon; Carlson, Erik D.; Jewett, Michael C. (2020-02-28). "In vitro ribosome synthesis and evolution through ribosome display". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 1108. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.1108H. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-14705-2. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   7048773 . PMID   32111839.
  13. Bocanegra, Rebeca; Ismael Plaza, G. A.; Pulido, Carlos R.; Ibarra, Borja (2021-01-01). "DNA replication machinery: Insights from in vitro single-molecule approaches". Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal. 19: 2057–2069. doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2021.04.013. ISSN   2001-0370. PMC   8085672 . PMID   33995902.
  14. Bruchhagen, Christin; van Krüchten, Andre; Klemm, Carolin; Ludwig, Stephan; Ehrhardt, Christina (2018), Yamauchi, Yohei (ed.), "In Vitro Models to Study Influenza Virus and Staphylococcus aureus Super-Infection on a Molecular Level", Influenza Virus: Methods and Protocols, New York, NY: Springer, vol. 1836, pp. 375–386, doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8678-1_18, ISBN   978-1-4939-8678-1, PMID   30151583 , retrieved 2023-04-11
  15. Xie, Xuping; Lokugamage, Kumari G.; Zhang, Xianwen; Vu, Michelle N.; Muruato, Antonio E.; Menachery, Vineet D.; Shi, Pei-Yong (March 2021). "Engineering SARS-CoV-2 using a reverse genetic system". Nature Protocols. 16 (3): 1761–1784. doi:10.1038/s41596-021-00491-8. ISSN   1750-2799. PMC   8168523 . PMID   33514944.
  16. "Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  17. Labrou, Nikolaos E. (2014), Labrou, Nikolaos E. (ed.), "Protein Purification: An Overview", Protein Downstream Processing: Design, Development and Application of High and Low-Resolution Methods, Methods in Molecular Biology, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, vol. 1129, pp. 3–10, doi:10.1007/978-1-62703-977-2_1, ISBN   978-1-62703-977-2, PMID   24648062 , retrieved 2023-04-11
  18. Johnson, M. H. (2013-01-01), "In Vitro Fertilization", in Maloy, Stanley; Hughes, Kelly (eds.), Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics (Second Edition), San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 44–45, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374984-0.00777-4, ISBN   978-0-08-096156-9 , retrieved 2023-04-11
  19. "In vitro diagnostics - Global". www.who.int. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  20. Artursson P.; Palm K.; Luthman K. (2001). "Caco-2 monolayers in experimental and theoretical predictions of drug transport". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 46 (1–3): 27–43. doi:10.1016/s0169-409x(00)00128-9. PMID   11259831.
  21. Gargas M.L.; Burgess R.L.; Voisard D.E.; Cason G.H.; Andersen M.E. (1989). "Partition-Coefficients of low-molecular-weight volatile chemicals in various liquids and tissues". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 98 (1): 87–99. doi:10.1016/0041-008x(89)90137-3. PMID   2929023.
  22. Pelkonen O.; Turpeinen M. (2007). "In vitro-in vivo extrapolation of hepatic clearance: biological tools, scaling factors, model assumptions and correct concentrations". Xenobiotica. 37 (10–11): 1066–1089. doi:10.1080/00498250701620726. PMID   17968737. S2CID   3043750.
  23. Alberts, Bruce (2008). Molecular biology of the cell. New York: Garland Science. ISBN   978-0-8153-4105-5.
  24. "Biological Complexity and Integrative Levels of Organization | Learn Science at Scitable". www.nature.com. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  25. Vignais, Paulette M.; Pierre Vignais (2010). Discovering Life, Manufacturing Life: How the experimental method shaped life sciences. Berlin: Springer. ISBN   978-90-481-3766-4.
  26. Jacqueline Nairn; Price, Nicholas C. (2009). Exploring proteins: a student's guide to experimental skills and methods. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-920570-7.
  27. "Existing Non-animal Alternatives". AltTox.org. 20 November 2016. Archived from the original on March 13, 2020.
  28. Pound, Pandora; Ritskes-Hoitinga, Merel (2018-11-07). "Is it possible to overcome issues of external validity in preclinical animal research? Why most animal models are bound to fail". Journal of Translational Medicine. 16 (1): 304. doi: 10.1186/s12967-018-1678-1 . ISSN   1479-5876. PMC   6223056 . PMID   30404629.
  29. Zeiss, Caroline J. (December 2021). "Comparative Milestones in Rodent and Human Postnatal Central Nervous System Development". Toxicologic Pathology. 49 (8): 1368–1373. doi:10.1177/01926233211046933. ISSN   0192-6233. PMID   34569375. S2CID   237944066.
  30. Quignot N.; Hamon J.; Bois F. (2014). Extrapolating in vitro results to predict human toxicity, in In Vitro Toxicology Systems, Bal-Price A., Jennings P., Eds, Methods in Pharmacology and Toxicology series. New York, USA: Springer Science. pp. 531–550.
  31. Rothman, S. S. (2002). Lessons from the living cell: the culture of science and the limits of reductionism. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   0-07-137820-0.
  32. Spielmann, Horst; Goldberg, Alan M. (1999-01-01), Marquardt, Hans; Schäfer, Siegfried G.; McClellan, Roger; Welsch, Frank (eds.), "Chapter 49 - In Vitro Methods", Toxicology, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 1131–1138, doi:10.1016/b978-012473270-4/50108-5, ISBN   978-0-12-473270-4 , retrieved 2023-04-11
  33. De Clercq E (October 2005). "Recent highlights in the development of new antiviral drugs". Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 8 (5): 552–60. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2005.08.010. PMC   7108330 . PMID   16125443.
  34. Blum, Jonathan; Masjosthusmann, Stefan; Bartmann, Kristina; Bendt, Farina; Dolde, Xenia; Dönmez, Arif; Förster, Nils; Holzer, Anna-Katharina; Hübenthal, Ulrike; Keßel, Hagen Eike; Kilic, Sadiye; Klose, Jördis; Pahl, Melanie; Stürzl, Lynn-Christin; Mangas, Iris (2023-01-01). "Establishment of a human cell-based in vitro battery to assess developmental neurotoxicity hazard of chemicals". Chemosphere. 311 (Pt 2): 137035. Bibcode:2023Chmsp.311m7035B. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137035 . ISSN   0045-6535. PMID   36328314.
  35. OECD (2023-04-14). "OECD work on in vitro assays for developmental neurotoxicity" . Retrieved 2023-07-04.
  36. Piersma, A. H.; Bosgra, S.; van Duursen, M. B. M.; Hermsen, S. A. B.; Jonker, L. R. A.; Kroese, E. D.; van der Linden, S. C.; Man, H.; Roelofs, M. J. E.; Schulpen, S. H. W.; Schwarz, M.; Uibel, F.; van Vugt-Lussenburg, B. M. A.; Westerhout, J.; Wolterbeek, A. P. M. (2013-07-01). "Evaluation of an alternative in vitro test battery for detecting reproductive toxicants". Reproductive Toxicology. 38: 53–64. doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2013.03.002. ISSN   0890-6238. PMID   23511061.
  37. Martin, Melissa M.; Baker, Nancy C.; Boyes, William K.; Carstens, Kelly E.; Culbreth, Megan E.; Gilbert, Mary E.; Harrill, Joshua A.; Nyffeler, Johanna; Padilla, Stephanie; Friedman, Katie Paul; Shafer, Timothy J. (2022-09-01). "An expert-driven literature review of "negative" chemicals for developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) in vitro assay evaluation". Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 93: 107117. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2022.107117. ISSN   0892-0362. PMID   35908584. S2CID   251187782.
  38. Repetto, Guillermo (2013), "Test Batteries in Ecotoxicology", in Férard, Jean-François; Blaise, Christian (eds.), Encyclopedia of Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1105–1128, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5704-2_100, ISBN   978-94-007-5704-2 , retrieved 2023-07-04
  39. European Medicines Agency (EMA) (2013-02-11). "ICH S2 (R1) Genotoxicity testing and data interpretation for pharmaceuticals intended for human use - Scientific guideline" (PDF). European Medicines Agency - Science Medicines Health.
  40. Sung, JH; Esch, MB; Shuler, ML (2010). "Integration of in silico and in vitro platforms for pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling". Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology. 6 (9): 1063–1081. doi:10.1517/17425255.2010.496251. PMID   20540627. S2CID   30583735.
  41. Quignot, Nadia; Bois, Frédéric Yves (2013). "A computational model to predict rat ovarian steroid secretion from in vitro experiments with endocrine disruptors". PLOS ONE. 8 (1): e53891. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...853891Q. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053891 . PMC   3543310 . PMID   23326527.
  42. Proença, Susana; Escher, Beate I.; Fischer, Fabian C.; Fisher, Ciarán; Grégoire, Sébastien; Hewitt, Nicky J.; Nicol, Beate; Paini, Alicia; Kramer, Nynke I. (2021-06-01). "Effective exposure of chemicals in in vitro cell systems: A review of chemical distribution models". Toxicology in Vitro. 73: 105133. doi: 10.1016/j.tiv.2021.105133 . ISSN   0887-2333. PMID   33662518. S2CID   232122825.
  43. Yoon M, Campbell JL, Andersen ME, Clewell HJ (2012). "Quantitative in vitro to in vivo extrapolation of cell-based toxicity assay results". Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 42 (8): 633–652. doi:10.3109/10408444.2012.692115. PMID   22667820. S2CID   3083574.
  44. Louisse J, de Jong E, van de Sandt JJ, Blaauboer BJ, Woutersen RA, Piersma AH, Rietjens IM, Verwei M (2010). "The use of in vitro toxicity data and physiologically based kinetic modeling to predict dose–response curves for in vivo developmental toxicity of glycol ethers in rat and man". Toxicological Sciences. 118 (2): 470–484. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfq270 . PMID   20833708.