Xanthan gum

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Contents

Xanthan gum [1]
Xanthan.svg
Names
Other names
E 415
Identifiers
ChemSpider
  • None
ECHA InfoCard 100.031.255 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
EC Number
  • 234-394-2
E number E415 (thickeners, ...)
UNII
Properties
C35H49O29 (monomer)
Molar mass 933.748 g·mol−1
Hazards
Safety data sheet (SDS) MSDS
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Xanthan gum ( /ˈzænθən/ ) is a polysaccharide with many industrial uses, including as a common food additive. It is an effective thickening agent and stabilizer that prevents ingredients from separating. It can be produced from simple sugars by fermentation and derives its name from the species of bacteria used, Xanthomonas campestris .

History

Xanthan gum was discovered by Allene Rosalind Jeanes and her research team at the United States Department of Agriculture, and brought into commercial production by CP Kelco under the trade name Kelzan in the early 1960s, CP Kelco is the only manufacuturer in the US. [2] [3] It was approved for use in foods in 1968 and is accepted as a safe food additive in the US, Canada, European countries, and many other countries, with E number E415, and CAS number 11138-66-2.

Xanthan gum derives its name from the species of bacteria used during the fermentation process, Xanthomonas campestris . [4]

Uses

Xanthan gum, 1%, can produce a significant increase in the viscosity of a liquid. [5]

In foods, xanthan gum is common in salad dressings and sauces. It helps to prevent oil separation by stabilizing the emulsion, although it is not an emulsifier. Xanthan gum also helps suspend solid particles, such as spices. Xanthan gum helps create the desired texture in many ice creams. Toothpaste often contains xanthan gum as a binder to keep the product uniform. Xanthan gum also helps thicken commercial egg substitutes made from egg whites, to replace the fat and emulsifiers found in yolks. It is also a preferred method of thickening liquids for those with swallowing disorders, since it does not change the color or flavor of foods or beverages at typical use levels. [6] In gluten-free baking, xanthan gum is used to give the dough or batter the stickiness that would otherwise be achieved with gluten. In most foods, it is used at concentrations of 0.5% or less. Xanthan gum is used in a wide range of food products, such as sauces, dressings, meat and poultry products, bakery products, confectionery products, beverages, dairy products, and others.

In the oil industry, xanthan gum is used in large quantities to thicken drilling mud. [7] These fluids carry the solids cut by the drilling bit to the surface. Xanthan gum provides improved "low end"[ clarification needed ] rheology. When circulation stops, the solids remain suspended in the drilling fluid. The widespread use of horizontal drilling and the demand for good control of drilled solids has led to its expanded use. It has been added to concrete poured underwater, to increase its viscosity and prevent washout.

In cosmetics, xanthan gum is used to prepare water gels. [8] It is also used in oil-in-water emulsions to enhance droplet coalescence. [9] Xanthan gum is under preliminary research for its potential uses in tissue engineering to construct hydrogels and scaffolds supporting three-dimensional tissue formation. [8] Furthermore, thiolated xanthan gum (see thiomers) has shown potential for drug delivery, [10] [11] since by the covalent attachment of thiol groups to this polysaccharide high mucoadhesive and permeation enhancing properties can be introduced. [12]

Shear thinning

The viscosity of xanthan gum solutions decreases with higher shear rates. This is called shear thinning or pseudoplasticity. This means that a product subjected to shear, whether from mixing, shaking or chewing, will thin. This is similar to the behaviour of tomato ketchup. When the shear forces are removed, the food will thicken again. In salad dressing, the addition of xanthan gum makes it thick enough at rest in the bottle to keep the mixture fairly homogeneous, but the shear forces generated by shaking and pouring thins it, so it can be easily poured. When it exits the bottle, the shear forces are removed and it thickens again, so it clings to the salad. The rheology of xanthan aqua solutions become visco-elastic at higher concentrations of xanthan gum in water. [13]

Concentrations used

The greater the concentration of xanthan gum in a liquid, the thicker the liquid will become. An emulsion can be formed with as little as 0.1% (by weight). Increasing the concentration of gum gives a thicker, more stable emulsion up to 1% xanthan gum. A teaspoon of xanthan gum weighs about 2.5 grams and brings one cup (250 ml) of water to a 1% concentration. [6] [14]

To make a foam, 0.2–0.8% xanthan gum is typically used. Larger amounts result in larger bubbles and denser foam. Egg white powder (0.2–2.0%) with 0.1–0.4% xanthan gum yields bubbles similar to soap bubbles.

Safety

According to a 2017 safety review by a scientific panel of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), xanthan gum (European food additive number E 415) is extensively digested during intestinal fermentation, and causes no adverse effects, even at high intake amounts. [15] The EFSA panel found no concern about genotoxicity from long-term consumption. [15] The EFSA concluded that there is no safety concern for the general population when xanthan gum is consumed as a food additive. [15]

Preparation

Xanthan gum is produced by the fermentation of glucose and sucrose. [4] The medium is well-aerated and stirred, and the xanthan polymer is produced extracellularly into the medium. After one to four days, the polymer is precipitated from the medium by the addition of isopropyl alcohol, and the precipitate is dried and milled to give a powder that is readily soluble in water or brine. [15]

It is composed of pentasaccharide repeat units, comprising glucose, mannose, and glucuronic acid in the molar ratio 2:2:1. [15] [16]

A strain of X. campestris that will grow on lactose has been developed – which allows it to be used to process whey, a waste product of cheese production. This can produce 30 g/L of xanthan gum for every 40 g/L of whey powder. Whey-derived xanthan gum is commonly used in many commercial products, such as shampoos and salad dressings. [17]

Detail of the biosynthesis

Synthesis originates from glucose as substrate for synthesis of the sugar nucleotides precursors UDP-glucose, UDP-glucuronate, and GDP-mannose that are required for building the pentasaccharide repeat unit. [15] This links the synthesis of xanthan to carbohydrate metabolism. The repeat units are built up at undecaprenylphosphate lipid carriers that are anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane.[ citation needed ]

Specific glycosyltransferases sequentially transfer the sugar moieties of the nucleotide sugar xanthan precursors to the lipid carriers. Acetyl and pyruvyl residues are added as non-carbohydrate decorations. Mature repeat units are polymerized and exported in a way resembling the Wzy-dependent polysaccharide synthesis mechanism of Enterobacteriaceae. Products of the gum gene cluster drive synthesis, polymerization, and export of the repeat unit. [18]

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polysaccharide</span> Long carbohydrate polymers such as starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin

Polysaccharides, or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long-chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with water (hydrolysis) using amylase enzymes as catalyst, which produces constituent sugars. They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen and galactogen and structural polysaccharides such as hemicellulose and chitin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Starch</span> Glucose polymer used as energy store in plants

Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets, and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as wheat, potatoes, maize (corn), rice, and cassava (manioc).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guar gum</span> Vegetable gum from the guar bean, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba

Guar gum, also called guaran, is a galactomannan polysaccharide extracted from guar beans that has thickening and stabilizing properties useful in food, feed, and industrial applications. The guar seeds are mechanically dehusked, hydrated, milled and screened according to application. It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-white powder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dietary fiber</span> Portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely digested

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carrageenan</span> Natural linear sulfated polysaccharide

Carrageenans or carrageenins are a family of natural linear sulfated polysaccharides. They are extracted from red edible seaweeds. Carrageenans are widely used in the food industry, for their gelling, thickening, and stabilizing properties. Their main application is in dairy and meat products, due to their strong binding to food proteins. Carrageenans have emerged as a promising candidate in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications as they resemble animal glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). They are used for tissue engineering, wound coverage, and drug delivery.

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Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen. Dextrins are mixtures of polymers of D-glucose units linked by α-(1→4) or α-(1→6) glycosidic bonds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alginic acid</span> Polysaccharide found in brown algae

Alginic acid, also called algin, is a naturally occurring, edible polysaccharide found in brown algae. It is hydrophilic and forms a viscous gum when hydrated. When the alginic acid binds with sodium and calcium ions, the resulting salts are known as alginates. Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown. It is sold in filamentous, granular, or powdered forms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thickening agent</span> Increases the viscosity of a liquid without altering its other properties

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carboxymethyl cellulose</span> Cellulose derivative grafted with carboxymethyl groups

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural gum</span> Thickening agent

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<i>Xanthomonas campestris</i> Species of bacterium

Xanthomonas campestris is a gram-negative, obligate aerobic bacterium that is a member of the Xanthomonas genus, which is a group of bacteria that are commonly known for their association with plant disease. This species includes Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, the cause of black rot in brassicas, one of the most important diseases of brassicas worldwide.

<i>Xanthomonas</i> Genus of bacteria

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The enzyme xanthan lyase catalyzes the following process:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allene Jeanes</span> American chemical researcher (1906–1995)

Allene Rosalind Jeanes was an American chemist whose pioneering work significantly impacted carbohydrate chemistry. Born in 1906 in Texas, Jeanes' notable contributions include the development of Dextran, a lifesaving blood plasma substitute used in the Korean and Vietnam wars, and Xanthan gum, a polysaccharide commonly used in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Jeanes' innovations have had a lasting influence on medical treatments and everyday consumer products, highlighting her role as a key figure in applied carbohydrate science. Her achievements earned her numerous accolades, including being the first woman to receive the Distinguished Service Award from the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Welan gum is an exopolysaccharide used as a rheology modifier in industrial applications such as cement manufacturing. It is produced by fermentation of sugar by bacteria of the genus Alcaligenes. The molecule consists of repeating tetrasaccharide units with single branches of L-mannose or L-rhamnose. In solution, the gum retains viscosity at elevated temperature, and is stable in a wide pH range, in the presence of calcium ion, and with high concentration of glycols.

GlcA-beta-(1->2)-D-Man-alpha-(1->3)-D-Glc-beta-(1->4)-D-Glc-alpha-1-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 4-beta-mannosyltransferase is an enzyme with systematic name GDP-mannose:GlcA-beta-(1->2)-D-Man-alpha-(1->3)-D-Glc-beta-(1->4)-D-Glc-alpha-1-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 4-beta-mannosyltransferase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

D-Man-alpha-(1->3) -D-Glc-beta-(1->4) -D-Glc-alpha-1-diphosphoundecaprenol 2-beta-glucuronyltransferase is an enzyme with the systematic name UDP-glucuronate: D-Man-alpha-(1->3) -D-Glc-beta-(1->4)-D-Glc-alpha-1-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol beta-1,2-glucuronyltransferase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction:

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sour cream</span> Fermented dairy product

Sour cream is a dairy product obtained by fermenting regular cream with certain kinds of lactic acid bacteria. The bacterial culture, which is introduced either deliberately or naturally, sours and thickens the cream. Its name comes from the production of lactic acid by bacterial fermentation, which is called souring. Crème fraîche is one type of sour cream with a high fat content and less sour taste.

References

  1. ↑ "Sicherheitsdatenblatt des Herstellers Carl-Roth" [Safety data sheet from the manufacturer Carl-Roth](PDF) (in German). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2011-04-18.
  2. ↑ Whistler RL, BeMiller JN (1973). Industrial gums, polysaccharides and their derivatives (2nd ed.). New York: Academic Press. ISBN   978-0-12-746252-3.
  3. ↑ "KELZAN Xanthan Gum - CP Kelco". cpkelco.com. CP Kelco. Feb 18, 2019. Retrieved Feb 18, 2019. CP Kelco offers a range of biopolymers to thicken, suspend and stabilize emulsions and other water-based systems. The KELZAN xanthan gum line of industrial products can be used to modify the texture of industrial products and to stabilize household cleaners, fabric care products, suspensions, oil-in-water emulsions and foams against separation.
  4. 1 2 Barrere GC, Barber CE, Daniels MJ (December 1986). "Molecular cloning of genes involved in the production of the extracellular polysaccharide xanthan by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 8 (6): 372–374. doi:10.1016/0141-8130(86)90058-9.
  5. ↑ Davidson RL (1980). Handbook of Water-soluble Gums and Resins. McGraw Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-015471-1.
  6. 1 2 cuisine, m. (2014). Xanthan Gum. Retrieved from modernist cuisine: "Xanthan Gum". 2012-11-27. Archived from the original on 2014-06-18. Retrieved 2014-06-21.
  7. ↑ "Oilfield Glossary - xanthan gum". www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com. Schlumberger. Archived from the original on 12 February 2017. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
  8. 1 2 Kumar A, Rao KM, Han SS (January 2018). "Application of xanthan gum as polysaccharide in tissue engineering: A review". Carbohydrate Polymers. 180: 128–144. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.10.009. PMID   29103488.
  9. ↑ Ye A, Hemar Y, Singh H (August 2004). "Influence of polysaccharides on the rate of coalescence in oil-in-water emulsions formed with highly hydrolyzed whey proteins". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 52 (17): 5491–5498. Bibcode:2004JAFC...52.5491Y. doi:10.1021/jf030762o. PMID   15315390.
  10. ↑ Bhatia M, Ahuja M, Mehta H (October 2015). "Thiol derivatization of Xanthan gum and its evaluation as a mucoadhesive polymer". Carbohydrate Polymers. 131: 119–124. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.05.049. PMID   26256167.
  11. ↑ Alhakamy NA, Naveen NR, Gorityala S, Kurakula M, Hosny KM, Safhi AY, et al. (August 2022). "Development of Novel S-Protective Thiolated-Based Mucoadhesive Tablets for Repaglinide: Pharmacokinetic Study". Polymers. 14 (17): 3529. doi: 10.3390/polym14173529 . PMC   9460926 . PMID   36080604.
  12. ↑ Leichner C, Jelkmann M, Bernkop-Schnürch A (2019). "Thiolated polymers: Bioinspired polymers utilizing one of the most important bridging structures in nature". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 151–152: 191–221. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2019.04.007. PMID   31028759. S2CID   135464452.
  13. ↑ Biroun MH, Haworth L, Abdolnezhad H, Khosravi A, Agrawal P, McHale G, et al. (April 2023). "Impact Dynamics of Non-Newtonian Droplets on Superhydrophobic Surfaces". Langmuir. 39 (16): 5793–5802. doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c00043. PMC   10134492 . PMID   37041655.
  14. ↑ Rubenzahl M. "Xanthan gum: Get past the weird and it's magical". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-01-02. Tests and measurements of xanthan gum
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mortensen A, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Di Domenico A, Frutos MJ, Galtier P, et al. (July 2017). "Re-evaluation of xanthan gum (E 415) as a food additive". EFSA Journal. 15 (7). European Food Safety Authority: e04909. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4909 . PMC   7009887 . PMID   32625570.
  16. ↑ García-Ochoa F, Santos VE, Casas JA, Gómez E (November 2000). "Xanthan gum: production, recovery, and properties". Biotechnology Advances. 18 (7): 549–579. doi:10.1016/S0734-9750(00)00050-1. PMID   14538095.
  17. ↑ Tortora GJ, Funke BR, Case CL (2010). Microbiology: An Introduction (10th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. p. 801.
  18. ↑ Becker A, Vorhölter FJ (2009). "Xanthan Biosynthesis by Xanthomonas Bacteria: An Overview of the Current Biochemical and Genomic Data". In Rehm BH (ed.). Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors. Caister Academic Press. ISBN   978-1-904455-36-3.
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