Drug delivery

Last updated
A nasal spray bottle being demonstrated. Action photo of nasal spray on a black background.jpg
A nasal spray bottle being demonstrated.

Drug delivery involves various methods and technologies designed to transport pharmaceutical compounds to their target sites helping therapeutic effect. [1] [2] It involves principles related to drug preparation, route of administration, site-specific targeting, metabolism, and toxicity all aimed to optimize efficacy and safety, while improving patient convenience and compliance. [3] [4] A key goal of drug delivery is to modify a drug's pharmacokinetics and specificity by combining it with different excipients, drug carriers, and medical devices designed to control its distribution and activity in the body. [3] [5] [6] Enhancing bioavailability and prolonging duration of action are essential strategies for improving therapeutic outcomes, [7] particularly in chronic disease management. Additionally, some research emphasizes on improving safety for the individuals administering the medication. For example, microneedle patches have been developed for vaccines and drug delivery to minimize the risk of needlestick injuries. [4] [8]

Contents

Drug delivery is closely linked with dosage form and route of administration, the latter of which is sometimes considered to be part of the definition. [9] Although the terms are often used interchangeably, they represent distinct concepts. The route of administration refers specifically to the path by which a drug enters the body, [10] such as oral, parenteral, or transdermal. [11] In contrast, the dosage form refers to the physical form in which the drug is manufactured and delivered, such as tablets, capsules, patches, inhalers or injectable solutions. These are various dosage forms and technologies which include but not limited to nanoparticles, liposomes, microneedles, and hydrogels that can be used to enhance therapeutic efficacy and safety. [12] The same route can accommodate multiple dosage forms; for example, the oral route may involve tablet, capsule, or liquid suspension. While the transdermal route may use a patch, gel, or cream. [13] Drug delivery incorporates both of these concepts while encompassing a broader scope, including the design and engineering of systems that operate within or across these routes. Common routes of administration include oral, parenteral (injected), sublingual, topical, transdermal, nasal, ocular, rectal, and vaginal. However, modern drug delivery continue to expand the possibilities of these routes through novel and hybrid approaches. [14]

Since the approval of the first controlled-release formulation in the 1950s, research into new delivery systems has been progressing, as opposed to new drug development which has been declining. [15] [16] [17] Several factors may be contributing to this shift in focus. One of the driving factors is the high cost of developing new drugs. A 2013 review found the cost of developing a delivery system was only 10% of the cost of developing a new pharmaceutical. [18] A more recent study found the median cost of bringing a new drug to market was $985 million in 2020, but did not look at the cost of developing drug delivery systems. [19] Other factors that have potentially influenced the increase in drug delivery system development may include the increasing prevalence of both chronic and infectious diseases, [17] [20] as well as a general increased understanding of the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of many drugs. [3]

Current efforts

Current efforts in drug delivery are vast and include topics such as controlled-release formulations, targeted delivery, nanomedicine, drug carriers, 3D printing, and the delivery of biologic drugs. [21] [22]

The relation between nanomaterial and drug delivery

Nanotechnology is a broad field of research and development that deals with the manipulation of matter at the atomic or subatomic level. It is used in fields such as medicine, energy, aerospace engineering, and more. One of the applications of nanotechnology is in drug delivery. This is a process by which nanoparticles are used to carry and deliver drugs to a specific area in the body. There are several advantages of using nanotechnology for drug delivery, including precise targeting of specific cells, increased drug potency, and lowered toxicity to the cells that are targeted. Nanoparticles can also carry vaccines to cells that might be hard to reach with traditional delivery methods. However, there are some concerns with the use of nanoparticles for drug delivery. Some studies have shown that nanoparticles may contribute to the development of tumors in other parts of the body. There is also growing concern that nanoparticles may have harmful effects on the environment. Despite these potential drawbacks, the use of nanotechnology in drug delivery is still a promising area for future research. [23]

Targeted delivery

Targeted drug delivery is the delivery of a drug to its target site without having an effect on other tissues. [24] Interest in targeted drug delivery has grown drastically due to its potential implications in the treatment of cancers and other chronic diseases. [25] [26] [27] In order to achieve efficient targeted delivery, the designed system must avoid the host's defense mechanisms and circulate to its intended site of action. [28] A number of drug carriers have been studied to effectively target specific tissues, including liposomes, nanogels, and other nanotechnologies. [22] [25] [29]

Controlled-release formulations

Controlled or modified-release formulations are designed to deliver medications at a steady rate over time, helping maintain consistent drug levels in the bloodstream. [30] This steady release reduced how often patients need to take their medication and minimizes the ups and downs in drug concentration that can cause side effects or lower effectiveness. [31] These systems often take the form of matrix tablets, osmotic pumps, and reservoir-type devices, all of which use physical or chemical barriers to regulate how the drug is released. This approach is especially useful for chronic conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or chronic pain, where maintaining stable therapeutic levels is key to keeping symptoms under control. [32]

The concept of controlled-release medication dates back to the 1950s, when Dexedrine became the first such formulation on the market. [15] This era saw the introduction of transdermal patches, which deliver drugs slowly through the skin. [33] As technology progressed, new formulations were developed to match the specific properties of different drugs. Examples include long-acting depot injections for medication like antipsychotics and hormone therapies, which remain effective for weeks or even months after a single dose. [34] [35]

Since the late 1990s, research has increasingly turned to nanotechnology as a way to improve controlled-released drug delivery. [15] [33] Nanoparticles, tiny carriers engineered at a molecular level, can protect drugs from being broken down too quickly in the body, improve how well they're absorbed, and deliver them directly to the tissues where they're needed. This targeted delivery not only reduces side effects but also helps patients stay on track with their treatments. These advances in nanotechnology are transforming the landscape of drug delivery and are emphasizing the importance of developing the next generation of CR systems. [36]

Nanoparticle-based Controlled-Release

The use of nanotechnology into drug delivery has opened the door to new possibilities, particularly with the development of nanoparticle-based controlled-release systems. These systems are designed to deliver drugs more precisely and over longer periods of time helping with targeted sites and therapeutic effects. [37] Tiny carriers, such as liposomes, dendrimers, and polymeric nanoparticles, can hold medication and release them at controlled rates. Some are even engineered to respond to specific conditions in the body. For instance, acidic microenvironment commonly found in tumor tissues can be used to trigger drug release at the site needed. This targeted approach helps minimize side effects by limiting exposure to the rest the body. Thus, making treatment more effective. [38]

Recent studies have shown the effectiveness of smart nanoparticles that respond to biological cues, such as pH or redox conditions, thereby delivering drugs more precisely to tumor sites. For instance, pH-sensitive nanoparticles take advantage of the lower pH in tumor cells to release the drugs, which boost effectiveness while protecting healthy cells. [39] Additionally, the use of biocompatible materials and switching the nanoparticle surfaces have improved their accuracy and release of delivery systems. [40]

Advances in design have also made it possible to create multi-functional nanoparticles that are capable of handling tough challenges like multi-drug resistance in cancer. These systems can carry more than one type of drug, targeting specific molecules, which helps to deliver a stronger punch to tumor tissues. Altogether, these breakthroughs point to a potential for nanoparticle-based controlled-release therapies in the fields of cancer therapy and personalized medicine. [41]

Advancements in Smart Polymers and Hydrogels

In recent years, advances in smart polymers and hydrogels have brought major improvements to how drugs are delivered in controlled-released systems. [42] These materials are unique in that they can respond to changes inside the body, like shifts in pH, temperature, and glucose levels, making it possible to fine-tune when and how much of a drug is released. For example, some hydrogels are designed to expand or contract based on these internal signals, which helps regulate the speed of drug release. This kind of precision helps improves therapeutic treatment and reduces side effects. These responsive materials are useful for managing chronic condition like diabetes, where glucose-responsive hydrogels can adjust insulin release based on blood sugar levels. [43]

Modulated drug release and zero-order drug release

Many scientists worked to create oral formulations that could maintain a constant drug level because of the ability of drug release at a zero-order rate blood's concentration. However, a few physiological restrictions made it challenging to create such oral formulations. First, because the lower parts of the intestine have a decreased capacity for absorption, the medication absorption typically declines as an oral formulation moves from the stomach to the intestine. The decreased drug amount released from the formulation over time frequently made this condition worse. Phenylpropanolamine HCl release from was the only instance of sustaining consistent blood concentration for roughly 16 hours. [44]

Delivery of biologic drugs

Delivering biological drugs such as peptides, proteins, antibodies, and genetic material, comes with unique challenges. Because of their large size and electrical charges, these molecules are often poorly absorbed and easily broken down by enzymes in the body. [3] [13] To overcome these hurdles, scientists have been developing advanced delivery methods using tools like liposomes, nanoparticles, fusion proteins, and protein-based nanocages. Some strategies take inspiration from how toxins naturally enter cells by adapting those mechanisms for therapeutic use. [3] [45] [46] [47] [48]

Among the macromolecules studied, RNA delivery has made progress, especially with the success of RNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. While protein and DNA delivery have shown progress, proteins in live animals and DNA in lab settings, delivering these large molecules, still remain a complex task. [49] [50] [51] Although oral administration is generally preferred by patients for convenience, it's rarely effective for biologics due to poor absorption. That being said, innovative technologies such as enzyme inhibitors, permeation enhancers, lipid-based nanoparticles, and microneedles are being used to improve oral bioavailability for these drugs. [52] [53]

One of the recent developments that has been successful is the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to deliver messenger RNA (mRNA). LNPs protect fragile mRNA from degradation and escape from endosomes so it can reach the cytoplasm and produce proteins. [54] This delivery method gained worldwide recognition during COVID-19 pandemic with the approval of mRNA vaccines from Pfizer-BioTech and Moderna. The rapid rollout of these vaccines proved that LNPs are not only effective but also scalable for mass production and global use. [55]

Looking beyond vaccines, mRNA therapies are now being explored for a range of therapeutic applications including cancer immunotherapy, genetic disorders, and other infectious diseases. Researchers are also testing alternative delivery systems, like exosomes and new types of nanoparticles, to make mRNA therapies safer and more efficient. [56] However, challenges remain, as mRNA is highly sensitive to environmental conditions. To address this, ongoing research is expanding into new administration routes including inhalable or oral mNRA formulations. This could reduce production costs and make these therapies more accessible to the world. [57]

Nanoparticle drug delivery

Delivering medications to the brain has long been a significant challenge in treating neurological diseases. The main reason lies in the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a highly selective, protective layer that shields the brain from toxins and pathogens in the bloodstream. While the BBB is crucial for maintaining brain health, it also makes it difficult for most therapeutic drugs to reach their target, especially in conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. [58] As a result, conventional drug delivery methods often fall short, either causing unwanted side effects or failing to deliver a high enough concentration to be effective. [59]

To address this, researchers have turned to nanoparticles, tiny engineered carriers designed to sneak past the BBB and deliver drugs directly to the brain tissue These particles can be tailored to take advantage of the body's own transport systems. For example, by attaching certain molecules to their surfaces, nanoparticles can trigger receptor-mediated transcytosis, a natural process that allows them to pass through cells lining the BBB and enter the brain. [60] [61] This kind of targeted delivery helps reduce the drug's exposure to the rest of the body, lowering the risk of side effects and increasing concentration where it matters most. So far, this strategy has shown promise in delivering treatments to the brain for conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. [62] [63]

Several types of nanoparticles are being studied for this purpose. Liposomes, for instance, are small vesicles that can carry drugs and be modified to circulate longer or home in on specific brain regions. [64] [65] Dendrimers, with their tree-like structure, can hold multiple drug molecules and targeting agents at once. Polymeric nanoparticles, made from biodegradable materials like polylactic acid (PLA) or polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), can be engineered to release drugs over time in a controlled way. Solid lipid nanoparticles offer another alternative, combining biocompatibility with the ability to cross barriers more efficiently. Altogether, these advances are paving the way for more effective and precise treatments for a range of neurological disorders. [66]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Drug Delivery Systems (definition)". www.reference.md. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  2. ↑ Rayaprolu, Bindhu Madhavi; Strawser, Jonathan J.; Anyarambhatla, Gopal (2018-10-03). "Excipients in parenteral formulations: selection considerations and effective utilization with small molecules and biologics". Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy. 44 (10): 1565–1571. doi:10.1080/03639045.2018.1483392. ISSN   0363-9045. PMID   29863908. S2CID   46934375.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Tiwari, Gaurav; Tiwari, Ruchi; Sriwastawa, Birendra; Bhati, L; Pandey, S; Pandey, P; Bannerjee, Saurabh K (2012). "Drug delivery systems: An updated review". International Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation. 2 (1): 2–11. doi: 10.4103/2230-973X.96920 . ISSN   2230-973X. PMC   3465154 . PMID   23071954.
  4. 1 2 Li, Junwei; Zeng, Mingtao; Shan, Hu; Tong, Chunyi (2017-08-23). "Microneedle Patches as Drug and Vaccine Delivery Platform". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 24 (22): 2413–2422. doi:10.2174/0929867324666170526124053. PMID   28552053.
  5. ↑ Tekade, Rakesh K., ed. (30 November 2018). Basic fundamentals of drug delivery. Academic Press. ISBN   978-0-12-817910-9. OCLC   1078149382.
  6. ↑ Allen, T. M. (2004-03-19). "Drug Delivery Systems: Entering the Mainstream". Science. 303 (5665): 1818–1822. Bibcode:2004Sci...303.1818A. doi:10.1126/science.1095833. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   15031496. S2CID   39013016.
  7. ↑ Singh, Akhand Pratap; Biswas, Arpan; Shukla, Aparna; Maiti, Pralay (2019-08-30). "Targeted therapy in chronic diseases using nanomaterial-based drug delivery vehicles". Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 4 (1): 33. doi:10.1038/s41392-019-0068-3. ISSN   2059-3635. PMC   6799838 . PMID   31637012.
  8. ↑ Kim, Yeu-Chun; Park, Jung-Hwan; Prausnitz, Mark R. (November 2012). "Microneedles for drug and vaccine delivery". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 64 (14): 1547–1568. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2012.04.005. PMC   3419303 . PMID   22575858.
  9. ↑ Nahler, Gerhard (2017). "D". Dictionary of Pharmaceutical Medicine. Springer, Cham. p. 96. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50669-2_4. ISBN   978-3-319-50669-2.
  10. ↑ "route of administration - definition of route of administration in the Medical dictionary - by the Free Online Medical Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia". 2011-06-12. Archived from the original on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  11. ↑ Ezike, Tobechukwu Christian; Okpala, Ugochukwu Solomon; Onoja, Ufedo Lovet; Nwike, Chinenye Princess; Ezeako, Emmanuel Chimeh; Okpara, Osinachi Juliet; Okoroafor, Charles Chinkwere; Eze, Shadrach Chinecherem; Kalu, Onyinyechi Loveth; Odoh, Evaristus Chinonso; Nwadike, Ugochukwu Gideon; Ogbodo, John Onyebuchi; Umeh, Bravo Udochukwu; Ossai, Emmanuel Chekwube; Nwanguma, Bennett Chima (2023-06-01). "Advances in drug delivery systems, challenges and future directions". Heliyon. 9 (6): e17488. Bibcode:2023Heliy...917488E. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17488 . ISSN   2405-8440. PMC   10320272 . PMID   37416680.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  12. ↑ Vargason, Ava M.; Anselmo, Aaron C.; Mitragotri, Samir (2021-04-01). "The evolution of commercial drug delivery technologies". Nature Biomedical Engineering. 5 (9): 951–967. doi:10.1038/s41551-021-00698-w. ISSN   2157-846X. PMID   33795852.
  13. 1 2 Jain, Kewal K. (2020), Jain, Kewal K. (ed.), "An Overview of Drug Delivery Systems", Drug Delivery Systems, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 2059, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 1–54, doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-9798-5_1, ISBN   978-1-4939-9797-8, PMID   31435914, S2CID   201275047 , retrieved 2021-04-20
  14. ↑ "COMMON ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION". media.lanecc.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-10-15. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  15. 1 2 3 Park, Kinam (September 2014). "Controlled drug delivery systems: Past forward and future back". Journal of Controlled Release. 190: 3–8. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.03.054. PMC   4142099 . PMID   24794901.
  16. ↑ Scannell, Jack W.; Blanckley, Alex; Boldon, Helen; Warrington, Brian (March 2012). "Diagnosing the decline in pharmaceutical R&D efficiency". Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 11 (3): 191–200. doi:10.1038/nrd3681. ISSN   1474-1776. PMID   22378269. S2CID   3344476.
  17. 1 2 ltd, Research and Markets. "Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery Market Forecast to 2027 - COVID-19 Impact and Global Analysis by Route of Administration; Application; End User, and Geography". www.researchandmarkets.com. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  18. ↑ He, Huining; Liang, Qiuling; Shin, Meong Cheol; Lee, Kyuri; Gong, Junbo; Ye, Junxiao; Liu, Quan; Wang, Jingkang; Yang, Victor (2013-12-01). "Significance and strategies in developing delivery systems for bio-macromolecular drugs". Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering. 7 (4): 496–507. doi:10.1007/s11705-013-1362-1. ISSN   2095-0187. S2CID   97347142.
  19. ↑ Wouters, Olivier J.; McKee, Martin; Luyten, Jeroen (2020-03-03). "Estimated Research and Development Investment Needed to Bring a New Medicine to Market, 2009-2018". JAMA. 323 (9): 844–853. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.1166. ISSN   0098-7484. PMC   7054832 . PMID   32125404.
  20. ↑ PricewaterhouseCoopers. "Chronic diseases and conditions are on the rise". PwC. Retrieved 2021-04-25.
  21. ↑ Li, Chong; Wang, Jiancheng; Wang, Yiguang; Gao, Huile; Wei, Gang; Huang, Yongzhuo; Yu, Haijun; Gan, Yong; Wang, Yongjun; Mei, Lin; Chen, Huabing; Hu, Haiyan; Zhang, Zhiping; Jin, Yiguang (2019-11-01). "Recent progress in drug delivery". Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B. 9 (6): 1145–1162. doi:10.1016/j.apsb.2019.08.003. ISSN   2211-3835. PMC   6900554 . PMID   31867161.
  22. 1 2 "Drug Delivery Systems". www.nibib.nih.gov. Archived from the original on July 28, 2013. Retrieved 2021-04-25.
  23. ↑ J. Wang, Y. Li, G. Nie, Multifunctional biomolecule nanostructures for cancer therapy, Nat. Rev. Mat. 6 (2021) 766–783
  24. ↑ Tekade, Rakesh K.; Maheshwari, Rahul; Soni, Namrata; Tekade, Muktika; Chougule, Mahavir B. (2017-01-01). "Nanotechnology for the Development of Nanomedicine". Nanotechnology-Based Approaches for Targeting and Delivery of Drugs and Genes: 3–61. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809717-5.00001-4. ISBN   9780128097175.
  25. 1 2 Madhusudana Rao, Kummara; Krishna Rao, Kummari S.V.; Ha, Chang-Sik (2018-01-01). "Functional stimuli-responsive polymeric network nanogels as cargo systems for targeted drug delivery and gene delivery in cancer cells". Design of Nanostructures for Theranostics Applications: 243–275. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813669-0.00006-3. ISBN   9780128136690.
  26. ↑ Patra, Jayanta Kumar; Das, Gitishree; Fraceto, Leonardo Fernandes; Campos, Estefania Vangelie Ramos; Rodriguez-Torres, Maria del Pilar; Acosta-Torres, Laura Susana; Diaz-Torres, Luis Armando; Grillo, Renato; Swamy, Mallappa Kumara; Sharma, Shivesh; Habtemariam, Solomon (December 2018). "Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects". Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 16 (1): 71. doi: 10.1186/s12951-018-0392-8 . ISSN   1477-3155. PMC   6145203 . PMID   30231877.
  27. ↑ Amidon, Seth; Brown, Jack E.; Dave, Vivek S. (August 2015). "Colon-Targeted Oral Drug Delivery Systems: Design Trends and Approaches". AAPS PharmSciTech. 16 (4): 731–741. doi:10.1208/s12249-015-0350-9. ISSN   1530-9932. PMC   4508299 . PMID   26070545.
  28. ↑ Bertrand, Nicolas; Leroux, Jean-Christophe (2012-07-20). "The journey of a drug-carrier in the body: An anatomo-physiological perspective". Journal of Controlled Release. 161 (2): 152–163. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.09.098. ISSN   0168-3659. PMID   22001607.
  29. ↑ Rudokas, Mindaugas; Najlah, Mohammad; Alhnan, Mohamed Albed; Elhissi, Abdelbary (2016). "Liposome Delivery Systems for Inhalation: A Critical Review Highlighting Formulation Issues and Anticancer Applications". Medical Principles and Practice. 25 (2): 60–72. doi:10.1159/000445116. ISSN   1011-7571. PMC   5588529 . PMID   26938856.
  30. ↑ Perrie, Yvonne (2012). Pharmaceutics: drug delivery and targeting. FASTtrack (2nd ed (Online-Ausg.) ed.). London Philadelphia: Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN   978-0-85711-059-6.
  31. ↑ Siepmann, J; Peppas, N. A (2001-06-11). "Modeling of drug release from delivery systems based on hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. Mathematical Modeling of Controlled Drug Delivery. 48 (2): 139–157. doi:10.1016/S0169-409X(01)00112-0. ISSN   0169-409X.
  32. ↑ Nokhodchi, Ali; Raja, Shaista; Patel, Pryia; Asare-Addo, Kofi (2012-11-04). "The Role of Oral Controlled Release Matrix Tablets in Drug Delivery Systems". BioImpacts. 2 (4): 175–187. doi:10.5681/bi.2012.027. ISSN   2228-5652. PMC   3648939 . PMID   23678458.
  33. 1 2 Yun, Yeon Hee; Lee, Byung Kook; Park, Kinam (December 2015). "Controlled Drug Delivery: Historical perspective for the next generation". Journal of Controlled Release. 219: 2–7. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.10.005. PMC   4656096 . PMID   26456749.
  34. ↑ Lindenmayer, Jean-Pierre; Glick, Ira D.; Talreja, Hiteshkumar; Underriner, Michael (July 2020). "Persistent Barriers to the Use of Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics for the Treatment of Schizophrenia". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 40 (4): 346–349. doi:10.1097/JCP.0000000000001225. ISSN   1533-712X. PMID   32639287. S2CID   220412843.
  35. ↑ Mishell, D. R. (May 1996). "Pharmacokinetics of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraception". The Journal of Reproductive Medicine. 41 (5 Suppl): 381–390. ISSN   0024-7758. PMID   8725700.
  36. ↑ Shivakalyani, Adepu; Seeram, Ramakrishna (January 2021). "Controlled Drug Delivery Systems: Current Status and Future Directions". Molecules. 26 (19). doi: 10.3390/molecule (inactive 1 July 2025). ISSN   1420-3049. Archived from the original on 2025-03-19.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  37. ↑ Patra, Jayanta Kumar; Das, Gitishree; Fraceto, Leonardo Fernandes; Campos, Estefania Vangelie Ramos; Rodriguez-Torres, Maria del Pilar; Acosta-Torres, Laura Susana; Diaz-Torres, Luis Armando; Grillo, Renato; Swamy, Mallappa Kumara; Sharma, Shivesh; Habtemariam, Solomon; Shin, Han-Seung (December 2018). "Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects". Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 16 (1): 71. doi: 10.1186/s12951-018-0392-8 . ISSN   1477-3155. PMC   6145203 . PMID   30231877.
  38. ↑ Gressler, Sabine; Hipfinger, Christina; Part, Florian; Pavlicek, Anna; Zafiu, Christian; Giese, Bernd (2025-02-07). "A systematic review of nanocarriers used in medicine and beyond — definition and categorization framework". Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 23 (1): 90. doi: 10.1186/s12951-025-03113-7 . ISSN   1477-3155. PMC   11804063 . PMID   39920688.
  39. ↑ Sun, Leming; Liu, Hongmei; Ye, Yanqi; Lei, Yang; Islam, Rehmat; Tan, Sumin; Tong, Rongsheng; Miao, Yang-Bao; Cai, Lulu (2023-11-03). "Smart nanoparticles for cancer therapy". Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 8 (1): 418. doi:10.1038/s41392-023-01642-x. ISSN   2059-3635. PMC   10622502 . PMID   37919282.
  40. ↑ Hong, Liquan; Li, Wen; Li, Yang; Yin, Shouchun (2023-07-12). "Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems targeting cancer cell surfaces". RSC Advances. 13 (31): 21365–21382. Bibcode:2023RSCAd..1321365H. doi:10.1039/D3RA02969G. ISSN   2046-2069. PMC   10350659 . PMID   37465582.
  41. ↑ Zhang, Jiaxin; Wang, Siyuan; Zhang, Daidi; He, Xin; Wang, Xue; Han, Huiqiong; Qin, Yanru (2023-08-03). "Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems to enhance cancer immunotherapy in solid tumors". Frontiers in Immunology. 14. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1230893 . ISSN   1664-3224. PMC   10435760 . PMID   37600822.
  42. ↑ Ezike, Tobechukwu Christian; Okpala, Ugochukwu Solomon; Onoja, Ufedo Lovet; Nwike, Chinenye Princess; Ezeako, Emmanuel Chimeh; Okpara, Osinachi Juliet; Okoroafor, Charles Chinkwere; Eze, Shadrach Chinecherem; Kalu, Onyinyechi Loveth; Odoh, Evaristus Chinonso; Nwadike, Ugochukwu Gideon; Ogbodo, John Onyebuchi; Umeh, Bravo Udochukwu; Ossai, Emmanuel Chekwube; Nwanguma, Bennett Chima (2023-06-01). "Advances in drug delivery systems, challenges and future directions". Heliyon. 9 (6): e17488. Bibcode:2023Heliy...917488E. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17488 . ISSN   2405-8440. PMC   10320272 . PMID   37416680.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  43. ↑ Priya James, Honey; John, Rijo; Alex, Anju; Anoop, K. R. (2014-04-01). "Smart polymers for the controlled delivery of drugs – a concise overview". Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B. 4 (2): 120–127. doi:10.1016/j.apsb.2014.02.005. ISSN   2211-3835. PMC   4590297 . PMID   26579373.
  44. ↑ J.-C. Liu, M. Farber, Y.W. Chien, Comparative release of phenylpropanolamine HCl from long-acting appetite suppressant products: Acutrim vs, Dexatrim. Drug Develop. and Indus. Pharm. 10 (1984) 1639–1661.
  45. ↑ Strohl, William R. (January 2018). "Current progress in innovative engineered antibodies". Protein & Cell. 9 (1): 86–120. doi:10.1007/s13238-017-0457-8. ISSN   1674-800X. PMC   5777977 . PMID   28822103.
  46. ↑ Marschall, Andrea L J; Frenzel, André; Schirrmann, Thomas; Schüngel, Manuela; Dübel, Stefan (2011). "Targeting antibodies to the cytoplasm". mAbs. 3 (1): 3–16. doi:10.4161/mabs.3.1.14110. ISSN   1942-0862. PMC   3038006 . PMID   21099369.
  47. ↑ Uchida M, Maier B, Waghwani HK, Selivanovitch E, Pay SL, Avera J, Yun E, Sandoval RM, Molitoris BA, Zollman A, Douglas T, Hato, T (September 2019). "The archaeal Dps nanocage targets kidney proximal tubules via glomerular filtration". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 129 (9): 3941–3951. doi: 10.1172/JCI127511 . PMC   6715384 . PMID   31424427.
  48. ↑ Ruschig M, Marschall Andrea LJ (2023). "Targeting the Inside of Cells with Biologicals: Toxin Routes in a Therapeutic Context". BioDrugs. 37 (2): 181–203. doi: 10.1007/s40259-023-00580-y . PMC   9893211 . PMID   36729328.
  49. ↑ Zuris, John A; Thompson, DB; Shu, Y; Guilinger, JP; Bessen, JL; Hu, JH; Maeder, ML; Joung, JK; Chen, ZY; Liu, DR (Jan 2015). "Cationic lipid-mediated delivery of proteins enables efficient protein-based genome editing in vitro and in vivo". Nat Biotechnol. 33 (1): 73–80. doi:10.1038/nbt.3081. PMC   4289409 . PMID   25357182.
  50. ↑ Schoenmaker, Linde; Witzigmann, D; Kulkarni, JA; Verbeke, R; Kersten, G; Jiskoot, W; Crommelin, DJA (April 2021). "mRNA-lipid nanoparticle COVID-19 vaccines: Structure and stability". Int J Pharm. 601 (120586): 120586. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120586. PMC   8032477 . PMID   33839230.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  51. ↑ Marschall, Andrea L J (October 2021). "Targeting the Inside of Cells with Biologicals: Chemicals as a Delivery Strategy". BioDrugs. 25 (6): 643–671. doi:10.1007/s40259-021-00500-y. PMC   8548996 . PMID   34705260.
  52. ↑ Haddadzadegan, S; Dorkoosh, F; Bernkop-Schnürch, A (2022). "Oral delivery of therapeutic peptides and proteins: Technology landscape of lipid-based nanocarriers". Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 182 114097. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.114097 . PMID   34999121. S2CID   245820799.
  53. ↑ Bordbar-Khiabani A, Gasik M (2022). "Smart hydrogels for advanced drug delivery systems". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (7): 3665. doi: 10.3390/ijms23073665 . PMC   8998863 . PMID   35409025.
  54. ↑ Hou, Xucheng; Zaks, Tal; Langer, Robert; Dong, Yizhou (2021-08-10). "Lipid nanoparticles for mRNA delivery". Nature Reviews Materials. 6 (12): 1078–1094. Bibcode:2021NatRM...6.1078H. doi:10.1038/s41578-021-00358-0. ISSN   2058-8437. PMC   8353930 . PMID   34394960.
  55. ↑ Pardi, Norbert; Hogan, Michael J.; Porter, Frederick W.; Weissman, Drew (April 2018). "mRNA vaccines — a new era in vaccinology". Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 17 (4): 261–279. doi:10.1038/nrd.2017.243. ISSN   1474-1776. PMC   5906799 . PMID   29326426.
  56. ↑ Lu, Ruei-Min; Hsu, Hsiang-En; Perez, Ser John Lynon P.; Kumari, Monika; Chen, Guan-Hong; Hong, Ming-Hsiang; Lin, Yin-Shiou; Liu, Ching-Hang; Ko, Shih-Han; Concio, Christian Angelo P.; Su, Yi-Jen; Chang, Yi-Han; Li, Wen-Shan; Wu, Han-Chung (2024-09-10). "Current landscape of mRNA technologies and delivery systems for new modality therapeutics". Journal of Biomedical Science. 31 (1): 89. doi: 10.1186/s12929-024-01080-z . ISSN   1423-0127. PMC   11389359 . PMID   39256822.
  57. ↑ Sahin, Ugur; Muik, Alexander; Derhovanessian, Evelyna; Vogler, Isabel; Kranz, Lena M.; Vormehr, Mathias; Baum, Alina; Pascal, Kristen; Quandt, Jasmin; Maurus, Daniel; Brachtendorf, Sebastian; Lörks, Verena; Sikorski, Julian; Hilker, Rolf; Becker, Dirk (2020-10-22). "COVID-19 vaccine BNT162b1 elicits human antibody and TH1 T cell responses". Nature. 586 (7830): 594–599. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2814-7 . ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   32998157.
  58. ↑ Pardridge, William M (2012-11-01). "Drug Transport across the Blood–Brain Barrier". Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism. 32 (11): 1959–1972. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.126. ISSN   0271-678X. PMC   3494002 . PMID   22929442.
  59. ↑ Zha, Shuai; Liu, Haitao; Li, Hengde; Li, Haolan; Wong, Ka-Leung; All, Angelo Homayoun (2024-01-23). "Functionalized Nanomaterials Capable of Crossing the Blood-Brain Barrier". ACS Nano. 18 (3): 1820–1845. doi:10.1021/acsnano.3c10674. ISSN   1936-086X. PMC   10811692 . PMID   38193927.
  60. ↑ Jones, Angela R.; Shusta, Eric V. (2007-08-01). "Blood–Brain Barrier Transport of Therapeutics via Receptor-Mediation". Pharmaceutical Research. 24 (9): 1759–1771. doi:10.1007/s11095-007-9379-0. ISSN   0724-8741. PMC   2685177 .
  61. ↑ Tang, Kaicheng; Tang, Zhongjie; Niu, Miaomiao; Kuang, Zuyin; Xue, Weiwei; Wang, Xinyu; Liu, Xinlong; Yu, Yang; Jeong, Seongdong; Ma, Yifan; Wu, Annette; Kim, Betty Y. S.; Jiang, Wen; Yang, Zhaogang; Li, Chong (2025-04-10). "Allosteric targeted drug delivery for enhanced blood-brain barrier penetration via mimicking transmembrane domain interactions". Nature Communications. 16 (1) 3410. doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58746-x. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   11986143 .
  62. ↑ Tiwari, Gaurav; Tiwari, Ruchi; Bannerjee, SaurabhK; Bhati, L; Pandey, S; Pandey, P; Sriwastawa, Birendra (2012). "Drug delivery systems: An updated review". International Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation. 2 (1): 2–11. doi: 10.4103/2230-973x.96920 . ISSN   2230-973X. PMC   3465154 . PMID   23071954.
  63. ↑ Hersh, Andrew M.; Alomari, Safwan; Tyler, Betty M. (2022-04-09). "Crossing the Blood-Brain Barrier: Advances in Nanoparticle Technology for Drug Delivery in Neuro-Oncology". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (8): 4153. doi: 10.3390/ijms23084153 . ISSN   1422-0067. PMC   9032478 . PMID   35456971.
  64. ↑ Kreuter, Jörg (2014-05-01). "Drug delivery to the central nervous system by polymeric nanoparticles: What do we know?". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2014 Editor's Collection. 71: 2–14. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2013.08.008. ISSN   0169-409X. PMID   23981489.
  65. ↑ Sercombe, Lisa; Veerati, Tejaswi; Moheimani, Fatemeh; Wu, Sherry Y.; Sood, Anil K.; Hua, Susan (2015-12-01). "Advances and Challenges of Liposome Assisted Drug Delivery". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 6: 286. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00286 . ISSN   1663-9812. PMC   4664963 . PMID   26648870.
  66. ↑ Koo, Yong-Eun Lee; Reddy, G. Ramachandra; Bhojani, Mahaveer; Schneider, Randy; Philbert, Martin A.; Rehemtulla, Alnawaz; Ross, Brian D.; Kopelman, Raoul (2006-12-01). "Brain cancer diagnosis and therapy with nanoplatforms". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. Particulate Nanomedicines. 58 (14): 1556–1577. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2006.09.012. ISSN   0169-409X.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.