Mouthwash

Last updated

Range of mouthwashes by Listerine Listerine products.jpg
Range of mouthwashes by Listerine

Mouthwash, mouth rinse, oral rinse, or mouth bath [1] is a liquid which is held in the mouth passively or swirled around the mouth by contraction of the perioral muscles and/or movement of the head, and may be gargled, where the head is tilted back and the liquid bubbled at the back of the mouth.

Contents

Usually mouthwashes are antiseptic solutions intended to reduce the microbial load in the mouth, although other mouthwashes might be given for other reasons such as for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory or anti-fungal action. Additionally, some rinses act as saliva substitutes to neutralize acid and keep the mouth moist in xerostomia (dry mouth). [2] [3] Cosmetic mouthrinses temporarily control or reduce bad breath and leave the mouth with a pleasant taste. [4]

Rinsing with water or mouthwash after brushing with a fluoride toothpaste can reduce the availability of salivary fluoride. This can lower the anti-cavity re-mineralization and antibacterial effects of fluoride. [5] [6] [7] Fluoridated mouthwash may mitigate this effect or in high concentrations increase available fluoride, but is not as cost-effective as leaving the fluoride toothpaste on the teeth after brushing. [5] A group of experts discussing post brushing rinsing in 2012 found that although there was clear guidance given in many public health advice publications to "spit, avoid rinsing with water/excessive rinsing with water" [8] they believed there was a limited evidence base for best practice. [9]

Use

Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20–50 ml (2/3 fl oz) of mouthwash. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out. Most companies suggest not drinking water immediately after using mouthwash. In some brands, the expectorate is stained, so that one can see the bacteria and debris. [10] [11] [12] Mouthwash should not be used immediately after brushing the teeth so as not to wash away the beneficial fluoride residue left from the toothpaste. Similarly, the mouth should not be rinsed out with water after brushing. Patients were told to "spit don't rinse" after toothbrushing as part of a National Health Service campaign in the UK. [13] A fluoride mouthrinse can be used at a different time of the day to brushing. [8]

Gargling is where the head is tilted back, allowing the mouthwash to sit in the back of the mouth while exhaling, causing the liquid to bubble. Gargling is practiced in Japan for perceived prevention of viral infection. One commonly used way is with infusions or tea. In some cultures, gargling is usually done in private, typically in a bathroom at a sink so the liquid can be rinsed away. [14]

Dangerous misuse

Serious harm and even death can quickly result from ingestion due to the high alcohol content and other substances harmful to ingestion present in some brands of mouthwash. [15] 0% alcohol mouthwashes do exist, as well as many other formulations for different needs (covered in the above sections).

These risks may be higher in toddlers and young children if they are allowed to use toothpaste and/or mouthwash unsupervised, where they may swallow it. Misuse in this way can be avoided with parental admission or supervision and by using child-safe forms or a children's brand of mouthwash.

It is a common cause of death among homeless people during winter months, because a person can feel warmer after drinking it. [16]

Effects

The most-commonly-used mouthwashes are commercial antiseptics, which are used at home as part of an oral hygiene routine. Mouthwashes combine ingredients to treat a variety of oral conditions. Variations are common, and mouthwash has no standard formulation, so its use and recommendation involves concerns about patient safety. Some manufacturers of mouthwash state that their antiseptic and antiplaque mouthwashes kill the bacterial plaque that causes cavities, gingivitis, and bad breath. It is, however, generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing. [17] [18] [19] The American Dental Association asserts that regular brushing and proper flossing are enough in most cases, in addition to regular dental check-ups, although they approve many mouthwashes. [20] For many patients, however, the mechanical methods could be tedious and time-consuming, and, additionally, some local conditions may render them especially difficult. Chemotherapeutic agents, including mouthwashes, could have a key role as adjuncts to daily home care, preventing and controlling supragingival plaque, gingivitis and oral malodor. [21]

Minor and transient side effects of mouthwashes are very common, such as taste disturbance, tooth staining, sensation of a dry mouth, etc. Alcohol-containing mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse, as they dry out the mouth. [22] [23] Soreness, ulceration and redness may sometimes occur (e.g., aphthous stomatitis or allergic contact stomatitis) if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients, such as preservatives, coloring, flavors and fragrances. Such effects might be reduced or eliminated by diluting the mouthwash with water, using a different mouthwash (e.g. saltwater), or foregoing mouthwash entirely.

Prescription mouthwashes are used prior to and after oral surgery procedures, such as tooth extraction, or to treat the pain associated with mucositis caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy. They are also prescribed for aphthous ulcers, other oral ulcers, and other mouth pain. [24] "Magic mouthwashes" are prescription mouthwashes compounded in a pharmacy from a list of ingredients specified by a doctor. [25] [26] Despite a lack of evidence that prescription mouthwashes are more effective in decreasing the pain of oral lesions, many patients and prescribers continue to use them. There has been only one controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of magic mouthwash; it shows no difference in efficacy between the most common magic-mouthwash formulation, on the one hand, and commercial mouthwashes (such as chlorhexidine) or a saline/baking soda solution, on the other. Current guidelines suggest that saline solution is just as effective as magic mouthwash in pain relief and in shortening the healing time of oral mucositis from cancer therapies. [24]

History

Listerine advertisement, 1932 Listerine advertisement, 1932.jpg
Listerine advertisement, 1932
Swedish ad for toiletries, 1905/1906 Katalog vintern 1905-1906. AB Nordiska Kompaniet. Har-, Toalett- & Tandvatten, Pomada & Brilliantine - Nordiska Museet - NMA.0040796.jpg
Swedish ad for toiletries, 1905/1906

The first known references to mouth rinsing is in Ayurveda [27] for treatment of gingivitis. [28] Later, in the Greek and Roman periods, mouth rinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes, and Hippocrates recommended a mixture of salt, alum, and vinegar. [29] The Jewish Talmud, dating back about 1,800 years, suggests a cure for gum ailments containing "dough water" and olive oil. [30] The ancient Chinese had also gargled salt water, tea and wine as a form of mouthwash after meals, due to the antiseptic properties of those liquids. [31]

Before Europeans came to the Americas, Native North American and Mesoamerican cultures used mouthwashes, often made from plants such as Coptis trifolia . [32] Peoples of the Americas used salt water mouthwashes for sore throats, and other mouthwashes for problems such as teething and mouth ulcers. [32]

Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the famous 17th century microscopist, discovered living organisms (living, because they were mobile) in deposits on the teeth (what we now call dental plaque). He also found organisms in water from the canal next to his home in Delft. He experimented with samples by adding vinegar or brandy and found that this resulted in the immediate immobilization or killing of the organisms suspended in water. Next he tried rinsing the mouth of himself and somebody else with a mouthwash containing vinegar or brandy and found that living organisms remained in the dental plaque. He concluded—correctly—that the mouthwash either did not reach, or was not present long enough, to kill the plaque organisms. [33] In 1892, German Richard Seifert invented mouthwash product Odol, which was produced by company founder Karl August Lingner (1861–1916) in Dresden. [34]

That remained the state of affairs until the late 1960s when Harald Loe (at the time a professor at the Royal Dental College in Aarhus, Denmark) demonstrated that a chlorhexidine compound could prevent the build-up of dental plaque. The reason for chlorhexidine's effectiveness is that it strongly adheres to surfaces in the mouth and thus remains present in effective concentrations for many hours. [35]

Since then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the build-up in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis, in addition to fighting bad breath. Many of these solutions aim to control the volatile sulfur compound–creating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste. [11] [10] [36] [37] [38] For example, the number of mouthwash variants in the United States of America has grown from 15 (1970) to 66 (1998) to 113 (2012). [39]

Research

Research in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long-term solution. [40]

A clinical trial and laboratory studies have shown that alcohol-containing mouthwash could reduce the growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the pharynx. [41] [42] However, subsequent trials have found that there was no difference in gonorrhoea cases among men using daily mouthwash compared to those who did not use mouthwash for 12 weeks. [43] [44]

Ingredients

Alcohol

An example of a commercial mouthwash brand which is alcohol-free Colgate Alcohol Free Mouthwash.jpg
An example of a commercial mouthwash brand which is alcohol-free

Alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol, which help to penetrate plaque. [45] Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, [46] as a carrier for the flavor, to provide "bite". [47] [ unreliable medical source? ] Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing, although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. [48] In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it, or, indeed, be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals. [49] Alcohol in mouthwashes may act as a carcinogen (cancer-inducing agent) in some cases, see Oral cancer § Alcohol. [50] Many newer brands of mouthwash are alcohol-free, not just in response to consumer concerns about oral cancer, but also to cater for religious groups who abstain from alcohol consumption.

Benzydamine (analgesic)

In painful oral conditions such as aphthous stomatitis, analgesic mouthrinses (e.g. benzydamine mouthwash, or "Difflam") are sometimes used to ease pain, commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating.

Benzoic acid

Benzoic acid acts as a buffer. [45]

Betamethasone

Betamethasone is sometimes used as an anti-inflammatory, corticosteroid mouthwash. It may be used for severe inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa such as the severe forms of aphthous stomatitis. [51] : 209 

Cetylpyridinium chloride (antiseptic, antimalodor)

Cetylpyridinium chloride containing mouthwash (e.g. 0.05%) is used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis. [52] Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or ulceration. [53]

Chlorhexidine digluconate and hexetidine (antiseptic)

Chlorhexidine digluconate is a chemical antiseptic and is used in a 0.05–0.2% solution as a mouthwash. [54] [11] [45] [55] There is no evidence to support that higher concentrations are more effective in controlling dental plaque and gingivitis. [56] A randomized clinical trial conducted in Rabat University in Morocco found better results in plaque inhibition when chlorohexidine with alcohol base 0.12% was used, when compared to an alcohol-free 0.1% chlorhexidine mouthrinse. [57]

Chlorhexidine has good substantivity (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth). [53] It has anti-plaque action, and also some anti-fungal action. [53] It is especially effective against Gram-negative rods. [53] The proportion of Gram-negative rods increase as gingivitis develops, so it is also used to reduce gingivitis. [56] [58] It is sometimes used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat periodontal disease, [53] although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well. [59] Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing. [59] Instead, chlorhexidine mouthwash is more effective when used as an adjunctive treatment with toothbrushing and flossing. [56] In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in primary herpetic gingivostomatitis, chlorhexidine mouthwash is used as a temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures. [59] It is not suited for use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis, however. [59] Rinsing with chlorhexidine mouthwash before and after a tooth extraction may reduce the risk of a dry socket. [60] Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in immunocompromised persons, [59] treatment of denture-related stomatitis, mucosal ulceration/erosions and oral mucosal lesions, general burning sensation [56] and many other uses. [59]

Chlorhexidine mouthwash is known to have minor adverse effects. [60] Chlorhexidine binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth. [53] A systematic review of commercial chlorhexidine products with anti-discoloration systems (ADSs) found that the ADSs were able to reduce tooth staining without affecting the beneficial effects of chlorhexidine. [61] Chlorhexidine mouthwash can also cause taste disturbance or alteration. [56] Chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with leukemia, desquamation, irritation, and stomatitis of oral mucosa, [53] [60] salivary gland pain and swelling, and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis. [53]

Hexetidine [45] also has anti-plaque, analgesic, astringent and anti-malodor properties, but is considered an inferior alternative to chlorhexidine. [62]

Chlorine dioxide

In dilute concentrations, chlorine dioxide is an ingredient that acts as an antiseptic agent in some mouthwashes. [63] [64]

Edible oils

In traditional Ayurvedic medicine, the use of oil mouthwashes is called "Kavala" ("oil swishing") or "Gandusha", [27] [65] and this practice has more recently been re-marketed by the complementary and alternative medicine industry as "oil pulling". [27] Its promoters claim it works by "pulling out" "toxins", which are known as ama in Ayurvedic medicine, and thereby reducing inflammation. [66] Ayurvedic literature claims that oil pulling is capable of improving oral and systemic health, including a benefit in conditions such as headaches, migraines, diabetes mellitus, asthma, [27] and acne, as well as whitening teeth. [67]

Oil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates. [65] When compared with chlorhexidine in one small study, it was found to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load, [68] [69] and the other health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification [65] or have not been investigated. [65] There is a report of lipid pneumonia caused by accidental inhalation of the oil during oil pulling. [70] [71] [72]

The mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 10–20 minutes then spat out. [65] [67] Sesame oil, coconut oil and ghee are traditionally used, [67] but newer oils such as sunflower oil are also used. [67]

Essential oils

Phenolic compounds and monoterpenes include essential oil constituents that have some antibacterial properties, [45] [73] such as eucalyptol, [14] eugenol, [45] hinokitiol, [74] menthol, [75] phenol, [45] or thymol. [45] Essential oils are oils which have been extracted from plants. Mouthwashes based on essential oils could be more effective than traditional mouthcare as anti-gingival treatments. [73] [76] They have been found effective in reducing halitosis, and are being used in several commercial mouthwashes.

Fluoride (anticavity)

Anti-cavity mouthwashes contain fluoride compounds (such as sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride, or sodium monofluorophosphate) to protect against tooth decay. [77] [78] Fluoride-containing mouthwashes are used as prevention for dental caries for individuals who are considered at higher risk for tooth decay, whether due to xerostomia related to salivary dysfunction or side effects of medication, to not drinking fluoridated water, or to being physically unable to care for their oral needs (brushing and flossing), and as treatment for those with dentinal hypersensitivity, gingival recession/ root exposure.

Flavoring agents and Xylitol

Flavoring agents include sweeteners such as sorbitol, sucralose, sodium saccharin, and xylitol, which stimulate salivary function due to their sweetness and taste and helps restore the mouth to a neutral level of acidity. [2]

Xylitol rinses double as a bacterial inhibitor, [79] and have been used as substitute for alcohol to avoid dryness of mouth associated with alcohol. [2]

Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide can be used as an oxidizing mouthwash (e.g. Peroxyl, 1.5%). [59] [80] It kills anaerobic bacteria, and also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth. [59] It is often used in the short term to treat acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis. [59] Side effects can occur with prolonged use, including hypertrophy of the lingual papillae. [59]

Lactoperoxidase (saliva substitute)

Enzymes and non-enzymatic proteins, such as lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, and lactoferrin, have been used in mouthwashes (e.g., Biotene) to reduce levels of oral bacteria, and, hence, of the acids produced by these bacteria. [81]

Lidocaine/xylocaine

Oral lidocaine is useful for the treatment of mucositis symptoms (inflammation of mucous membranes) induced by radiation or chemotherapy. [82] There is evidence that lidocaine anesthetic mouthwash has the potential to be systemically absorbed, when it was tested in patients with oral mucositis who underwent a bone marrow transplant. [83]

Methyl salicylate

Methyl salicylate functions as an antiseptic, antiinflammatory, and analgesic agent, a flavoring, and a fragrance. [49] Methyl salicylate has some anti-plaque action, but less than chlorhexidine. [53] Methyl salicylate does not stain teeth. [53]

Nystatin

Nystatin suspension is an antifungal ingredient used for the treatment of oral candidiasis. [84]

Potassium oxalate

A randomized clinical trial found promising results in controlling and reducing dentine hypersensitivity when potassium oxalate mouthwash was used in conjugation with toothbrushing. [85]

Povidone/iodine (PVP-I)

A 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a povidone-iodine solution was effective in preventing upper respiratory infection and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted. [86] Other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect. [87]

PVP-I in general covers "a wider virucidal spectrum, covering both enveloped and nonenveloped viruses, than the other commercially available antiseptics", [88] which also includes the novel SARS-CoV-2 Virus. [89] [90] [91]

Sanguinarine

Sanguinarine-containing mouthwashes are marketed as anti-plaque and anti-malodor treatments. [53] Sanguinarine is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract, obtained from plants such as Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot), Argemone mexicana (Mexican prickly poppy), and others. [53] However, its use is strongly associated with the development of leukoplakia (a white patch in the mouth), usually in the buccal sulcus. [53] [92] This type of leukoplakia has been termed "sanguinaria-associated keratosis", and more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the vestibule of the mouth have used this substance. Upon stopping contact with the causative substance, the lesions may persist for years. Although this type of leukoplakia may show dysplasia, the potential for malignant transformation is unknown. [93] Ironically, elements within the complementary and alternative medicine industry promote the use of sanguinaria as a therapy for cancer.

Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)

Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash, indicated for any of the reasons that a saltwater mouthwash might be used. Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride in aqueous solution are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth. [51] : 4 

Sodium chloride (salt)

Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action, as it is a hypertonic solution in relation to bacteria, which undergo lysis. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow (hyperemia) [59] to the surgical site, promoting healing. [1] Hot saltwater mouthwashes also encourage the draining of pus from dental abscesses. [94] In contrast, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g., hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of fibrosis on the face (see cutaneous sinus of dental origin). [95]

Saltwater mouthwashes are also routinely used after oral surgery, to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection. Some oral surgeons consider saltwater mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery. [95] In dental extractions, hot saltwater mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction. [95] The term mouth bath implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth, rather than vigorously swilled around (which could dislodge a blood clot). Once the blood clot has stabilized, the mouthwash can be used more vigorously. [95] These mouthwashes tend to be advised for use about 6 times per day, especially after meals (to remove food from the socket). [95]

Sodium lauryl sulfate (foaming agent)

Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products, including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS, since the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthwash. [96]

Sucralfate

Sucralfate is a mucosal coating agent, composed of an aluminum salt of sulfated sucrose. [97] It is not recommended for use in the prevention of oral mucositis in head and neck cancer patients receiving radiotherapy or chemoradiation, due to a lack of efficacy found in a well-designed, randomized controlled trial. [97]

Tetracycline (antibiotic)

Tetracycline is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash in adults (it causes red staining of teeth in children). It is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration (an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis), but prolonged use may lead to oral candidiasis, as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence of enough competing bacteria. [51] : 209  Similarly, minocycline mouthwashes of 0.5% concentrations can relieve symptoms of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. [98] Erythromycin is similar. [24]

Tranexamic acid

A 4.8% tranexamic acid solution is sometimes used as an antifibrinolytic mouthwash to prevent bleeding during and after oral surgery in persons with coagulopathies (clotting disorders) or who are taking anticoagulants (blood thinners such as warfarin). [99] : 473 

Triclosan

Triclosan is a non-ionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic found in some mouthwashes. [100] When used in mouthwash (e.g. 0.03%), there is moderate substantivity, broad spectrum anti-bacterial action, some anti-fungal action, and significant anti-plaque effect, especially when combined with a copolymer or zinc citrate. [53] Triclosan does not cause staining of the teeth. [53] The safety of triclosan has been questioned. [101]

Zinc

Astringents like zinc chloride provide a pleasant-tasting sensation and shrink tissues. [102] Zinc, when used in combination with other antiseptic agents, can limit the buildup of tartar. [103]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Listerine</span> Brand of mouthwash

Listerine is a brand of antiseptic mouthwash that is promoted with the slogan "Kills germs that cause bad breath". Named after Joseph Lister, who pioneered antiseptic surgery at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary in Scotland, Listerine was developed in 1879 by Joseph Lawrence, a chemist in St. Louis, Missouri.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toothpaste</span> Substance to clean and maintain teeth

Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it is an abrasive that aids in removing dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients to help prevent tooth decay and gum disease (gingivitis). Owing to differences in composition and fluoride content, not all toothpastes are equally effective in maintaining oral health. The decline of tooth decay during the 20th century has been attributed to the introduction and regular use of fluoride-containing toothpastes worldwide. Large amounts of swallowed toothpaste can be poisonous. Common colors for toothpaste include white and blue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bad breath</span> Presence of unpleasant odors in exhaled breath

Bad breath, also known as halitosis, is a symptom in which a noticeably unpleasant breath odour is present. It can result in anxiety among those affected. It is also associated with depression and symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder.

Teeth cleaning is part of oral hygiene and involves the removal of dental plaque from teeth with the intention of preventing cavities, gingivitis, and periodontal disease. People routinely clean their own teeth by brushing and interdental cleaning, and dental hygienists can remove hardened deposits (tartar) not removed by routine cleaning. Those with dentures and natural teeth may supplement their cleaning with a denture cleaner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorhexidine</span> Disinfectant and antiseptic

Chlorhexidine is a disinfectant and antiseptic with the molecular formula C22H30Cl2N10, which is used for skin disinfection before surgery and to disinfect surgical instruments. It is also used for cleaning wounds, preventing dental plaque, treating yeast infections of the mouth, and to keep urinary catheters from blocking. It is used as a liquid or a powder. It is commonly used in salt form, either the gluconate or the acetate.

Breath spray is a product sprayed into the mouth for the purpose of temporarily eliminating or at least covering up bad breath. The masking effect is short-term and reported to last for 4-6 hours. Breath sprays are occasionally advertised as being for smokers or those who dip tobacco, and occasionally to cover up the smell of cigarette/cigar smoking. Common flavours include cinnamon, spearmint and peppermint, as well as company-specific flavors, such as "Ice Mint", "Cool Mint" or "Supermint".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexetidine</span> Anti-bacterial agent

Hexetidine is an anti-bacterial and anti-fungal agent commonly used in both veterinary and human medicine. It is a local anesthetic, astringent and deodorant and has antiplaque effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluoride therapy</span> Medical use of fluoride

Fluoride therapy is the use of fluoride for medical purposes. Fluoride supplements are recommended to prevent tooth decay in children older than six months in areas where the drinking water is low in fluoride. It is typically used as a liquid, pill, or paste by mouth. Fluoride has also been used to treat a number of bone diseases.

Periodontology or periodontics is the specialty of dentistry that studies supporting structures of teeth, as well as diseases and conditions that affect them. The supporting tissues are known as the periodontium, which includes the gingiva (gums), alveolar bone, cementum, and the periodontal ligament. A periodontist is a dentist that specializes in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of periodontal disease and in the placement of dental implants.

Dental plaque is a biofilm of microorganisms that grows on surfaces within the mouth. It is a sticky colorless deposit at first, but when it forms tartar, it is often brown or pale yellow. It is commonly found between the teeth, on the front of teeth, behind teeth, on chewing surfaces, along the gumline (supragingival), or below the gumline cervical margins (subgingival). Dental plaque is also known as microbial plaque, oral biofilm, dental biofilm, dental plaque biofilm or bacterial plaque biofilm. Bacterial plaque is one of the major causes for dental decay and gum disease.

Sodium perborate is chemical compound whose chemical formula may be written NaH2BO4, Na2H4B2O8, or, more properly, [Na+]2[B2O4(OH)4]2−. Its name is sometimes abbreviated as PBS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cetylpyridinium chloride</span> Chemical compound

Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) is a cationic quaternary ammonium compound used in some types of mouthwashes, toothpastes, lozenges, throat sprays, breath sprays, and nasal sprays. It is an antiseptic that kills bacteria and other microorganisms. It has been shown to be effective in preventing dental plaque and reducing gingivitis. It has also been used as an ingredient in certain pesticides. As of the time of this update, one study suggests cetylpyridinium chloride does not cause brown tooth stains, although particular questions regarding usage habits in patient context are best addressed by a dental office as opposed to legal marketing. There are brands containing CPC as an active ingredient that may bear the warning label "In some cases, antimicrobial rinses may cause surface staining to teeth," following a failed class-action lawsuit brought by customers whose teeth were stained.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tooth brushing</span> Act of scrubbing teeth with a toothbrush

Tooth brushing is the act of scrubbing teeth with a toothbrush equipped with toothpaste. Interdental cleaning can be useful with tooth brushing, and together these two activities are the primary means of cleaning teeth, one of the main aspects of oral hygiene. The recommended amount of time for tooth brushing is two minutes each time for two times a day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scaling and root planing</span> Dental procedure

Scaling and root planing, also known as conventional periodontal therapy, non-surgical periodontal therapy or deep cleaning, is a procedure involving removal of dental plaque and calculus and then smoothing, or planing, of the (exposed) surfaces of the roots, removing cementum or dentine that is impregnated with calculus, toxins, or microorganisms, the agents that cause inflammation. It is a part of non-surgical periodontal therapy. This helps to establish a periodontium that is in remission of periodontal disease. Periodontal scalers and periodontal curettes are some of the tools involved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oral hygiene</span> Cleaning the mouth by brushing the teeth and cleaning in between the teeth

Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping one's oral cavity clean and free of disease and other problems by regular brushing of the teeth and adopting good hygiene habits. It is important that oral hygiene be carried out on a regular basis to enable prevention of dental disease and bad breath. The most common types of dental disease are tooth decay and gum diseases, including gingivitis, and periodontitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gingivitis</span> Inflammation of the gums

Gingivitis is a non-destructive disease that causes inflammation of the gums; ulitis is an alternative term. The most common form of gingivitis, and the most common form of periodontal disease overall, is in response to bacterial biofilms that are attached to tooth surfaces, termed plaque-induced gingivitis. Most forms of gingivitis are plaque-induced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mel Rosenberg</span> Canadian microbiologist

Mel Rosenberg is a Canadian microbiologist best known for his research on the diagnosis and treatment of bad breath (halitosis).

Biotene is an over-the-counter dental hygiene product currently marketed by Haleon. It is available in various forms, including toothpaste, mouthwash, and gel.

Peri-implant mucositis is defined as an inflammatory lesion of the peri-implant mucosa in the absence of continuing marginal bone loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salt rinse</span> Saline solution mouthwash

Salt rinse is a saline solution mouthwash used in dentistry to treat certain diseases and reduce post-operative pain and infection. It is also offered commercially for routine oral hygiene. Other names for the treatment include salt water mouthwash, salt water mouth bath, and saline mouth rinse.

References

  1. 1 2 Matthews RW (July 2003). "Hot salt water mouth baths". British Dental Journal. 195 (1): 3. doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.4810318. PMID   12856008. S2CID   3995032.
  2. 1 2 3 Reddy S (12 January 2015). "There is More to Your Mouthwash Than a Minty Taste". The Wall Street Journal.
  3. ↑ Tufts University (23 March 2015). "Should I use mouthwash?". Medical Xpress.
  4. ↑ "Learn More About Mouthrinses". American Dental Association. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014.
  5. 1 2 Mystikos C, Yoshino T, Ramberg P, Birkhed D (2011). "Effect of post-brushing mouthrinse solutions on salivary fluoride retention". Swedish Dental Journal. 35 (1): 17–24. PMID   21591596.
  6. ↑ Chesters RK, Huntington E, Burchell CK, Stephen KW (1992). "Effect of oral care habits on caries in adolescents". Caries Research. 26 (4): 299–304. doi:10.1159/000261456. PMID   1423447.
  7. ↑ Zamataro CB, Tenuta LM, Cury JA (June 2008). "Low-fluoride dentifrice and the effect of postbrushing rinsing on fluoride availability in saliva". European Archives of Paediatric Dentistry. 9 (2): 90–3. doi:10.1007/BF03262616. PMID   18534177. S2CID   31708112.
  8. 1 2 "Delivering better oral health: an evidence-based toolkit for prevention" (PDF) (3rd ed.). Public Health England, Department of Health. March 2017.
  9. ↑ Pitts N, Duckworth RM, Marsh P, Mutti B, Parnell C, Zero D (April 2012). "Post-brushing rinsing for the control of dental caries: exploration of the available evidence to establish what advice we should give our patients". British Dental Journal. 212 (7): 315–20. doi: 10.1038/sj.bdj.2012.260 . PMID   22498529.
  10. 1 2 Kozlovsky A, Goldberg S, Natour I, Rogatky-Gat A, Gelernter I, Rosenberg M (June 1996). "Efficacy of a 2-phase oil: water mouthrinse in controlling oral malodor, gingivitis, and plaque". Journal of Periodontology. 67 (6): 577–82. doi:10.1902/jop.1996.67.6.577. PMID   8794967.
  11. 1 2 3 Rosenberg M, Gelernter I, Barki M, Bar-Ness R (January 1992). "Day-long reduction of oral malodor by a two-phase oil:water mouthrinse as compared to chlorhexidine and placebo rinses". Journal of Periodontology. 63 (1): 39–43. doi:10.1902/jop.1992.63.1.39. PMID   1552460.
  12. ↑ Rosenberg M (1990). "Bad breath, diagnosis and treatment". University of Toronto Dental Journal. 3 (2): 7–11. PMID   2076696.
  13. ↑ "Oral health promotion messages: "Spit don't rinse"".
  14. 1 2 Pubchem. "Eucalyptol | C10H18O – PubChem". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  15. ↑ "What Are the Dangers of Drinking Mouthwash? | Laguna Hospital". Laguna Treatment Hospital. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  16. ↑ "The People Giving Alcoholics Beer to Get Them to Stop Drinking Mouthwash". vice.com. 16 March 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  17. ↑ Gunsolley JC (December 2006). "A meta-analysis of six-month studies of antiplaque and antigingivitis agents". Journal of the American Dental Association. 137 (12): 1649–57. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2006.0110. PMID   17138709. S2CID   9347082.
  18. ↑ Tal H, Rosenberg M (June 1990). "Estimation of dental plaque levels and gingival inflammation using a simple oral rinse technique". Journal of Periodontology. 61 (6): 339–42. doi:10.1902/jop.1990.61.6.339. PMID   2366142.
  19. ↑ "Listerine no replacement for flossing?". NBC News. 7 January 2005. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  20. ↑ Jake (1 April 2015). "Should I use Mouthwash".
  21. ↑ Cortelli JR, Thénoux RE (2007). "The effect of mouthrinses against oral microorganisms". Brazilian Oral Research. 21: 23–8. doi: 10.1590/S1806-83242007000500005 .
  22. ↑ Oneschuk D, Hagen N, MacDonald N (2012). Palliative Medicine: A case-based manual (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN   9780191628733.
  23. ↑ Philipp J (16 July 2015). "Medications, diseases among factors for dry mouth". azcentral.com.
  24. 1 2 3 Tom WC (3 July 2007). "Magic Mouthwash" (PDF). Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. 23 (230703): 1–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2009.
  25. ↑ Otterholt R. "Magic Mouthwash" . Retrieved 5 December 2009.
  26. ↑ "Magic Mouthwash". Pharmacist's Letter. Therapeutic Research Center. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Singh A, Purohit B (April 2011). "Tooth brushing, oil pulling and tissue regeneration: A review of holistic approaches to oral health". Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine. 2 (2): 64–8. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.82525 . PMC   3131773 . PMID   21760690.
  28. ↑ Van Zyl AW, Van Heerden WF (2014). "Mouthwash: A review for South African health care workers". South African Family Practice. 52 (2): 121–7. doi: 10.1080/20786204.2010.10873950 . hdl: 2263/14207 .
  29. ↑ Fischman SL (October 1997). "The history of oral hygiene products: how far have we come in 6000 years?". Periodontology 2000. 15: 7–14. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0757.1997.tb00099.x . PMID   9643227.
  30. ↑ Shifman A, Orenbuch S, Rosenberg M (October 2002). "Bad breath--a major disability according to the Talmud". The Israel Medical Association Journal. 4 (10): 843–5. PMID   12389360.
  31. ↑ "Getting to the roots of dentistry in ancient China". South China Morning Post. 12 December 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  32. 1 2 Keoke ED, Porterfield KM (2002). Encyclopedia of American Indian contributions to the world 15,000 years of inventions and innovations. New York, NY: Facts on File. p. 180. ISBN   978-1-4381-0990-9.
  33. ↑ Lax A (27 October 2005). Toxin: The cunning of bacterial poisons. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-157850-2.
  34. ↑ Lingner-Archiv (German)
  35. ↑ Budtz-Jörgensen E, Löe H (1972). "Chlorhexidine as a denture disinfectant in the treatment of denture stomatitis". Scandinavian Journal of Dental Research. 80 (6): 457–64. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0722.1972.tb00314.x. PMID   4575037.
  36. ↑ Bosy A, Kulkarni GV, Rosenberg M, McCulloch CA (January 1994). "Relationship of oral malodor to periodontitis: evidence of independence in discrete subpopulations". Journal of Periodontology. 65 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1902/jop.1994.65.1.37. PMID   8133414.
  37. ↑ Loesche WJ, Kazor C (2002). "Microbiology and treatment of halitosis". Periodontology 2000. 28: 256–79. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0757.2002.280111.x. PMID   12013345.
  38. ↑ Yaegaki K, Sanada K (1992). "Effects of a two-phase oil-water mouthwash on halitosis". Clinical Preventive Dentistry. 14 (1): 5–9. PMID   1499240.
  39. ↑ Aichner T, Coletti P (2013). "Customers' online shopping preferences in mass customization". Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice. 15 (1): 20–35. doi: 10.1057/dddmp.2013.34 .
  40. ↑ Greenwood V (2 February 2012). "Hacking the Microbiome for Fun and Profit: Can Killing Just One Mouth Bacterium Stop Cavities?". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
  41. ↑ Chow, Eric PF; Howden, Benjamin P.; Walker, Sandra; Lee, David; Bradshaw, Catriona S.; Chen, Marcus Y.; Snow, Anthony; Cook, Stuart; Fehler, Glenda; Fairley, Christopher K. (1 March 2017). "Antiseptic mouthwash against pharyngeal Neisseria gonorrhoeae: a randomised controlled trial and an in vitro study". Sexually Transmitted Infections. 93 (2): 88–93. doi: 10.1136/sextrans-2016-052753 . ISSN   1368-4973. PMID   27998950. S2CID   3479567.
  42. ↑ Williams, Eloise; Zhang, Bowen; Chow, Eric P. F.; Chea, Socheata; Phillips, Tiffany R.; Maddaford, Kate; Krysiak, Marcelina; Nong, Yi; Stefanatos, Helen; Pasricha, Shivani; Fairley, Christopher K.; Wiliamson, Deborah A. (21 June 2022). "Inhibitory Activity of Antibacterial Mouthwashes and Antiseptic Substances against Neisseria gonorrhoeae". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 66 (6): e0004222. doi:10.1128/aac.00042-22. ISSN   0066-4804. PMC   9211398 . PMID   35579459.
  43. ↑ Chow, Eric P F; Williamson, Deborah A; Hocking, Jane S; Law, Matthew G; Maddaford, Kate; Bradshaw, Catriona S; McNulty, Anna; Templeton, David J; Moore, Richard; Murray, Gerald L; Danielewski, Jennifer A; Wigan, Rebecca; Chen, Marcus Y; Guy, Rebecca J; Zhang, Lei (May 2021). "Antiseptic mouthwash for gonorrhoea prevention (OMEGA): a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, multicentre trial". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 21 (5): 647–656. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30704-0. PMID   33676595. S2CID   232142254.
  44. ↑ Van Dijck, Christophe; Tsoumanis, Achilleas; Rotsaert, Anke; Vuylsteke, Bea; Van den Bossche, Dorien; Paeleman, Elke; De Baetselier, Irith; Brosius, Isabel; Laumen, Jolein; Buyze, Jozefien; Wouters, Kristien; Lynen, Lutgarde; Van Esbroeck, Marjan; Herssens, Natacha; Abdellati, Said (May 2021). "Antibacterial mouthwash to prevent sexually transmitted infections in men who have sex with men taking HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PReGo): a randomised, placebo-controlled, crossover trial". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 21 (5): 657–667. doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30778-7. ISSN   1473-3099. PMID   33676596. S2CID   232142467.
  45. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Toedt J, Koza D, Van Cleef-Toedt K (2005), Chemical composition of everyday products (illustrated ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 48–49, ISBN   9780313325793
  46. ↑ Lachenmeier DW, Keck-Wilhelm A, Sauermann A, Mildau G (2008). "Safety Assessment of Alcohol-Containing Mouthwashes and Oral Rinses". SOFW Journal. 134 (10): 70–8.
  47. ↑ Pader M (October 1994). "Oral rinses". Cosmetics & Toiletries . 109 (10): 59–68. ISSN   0361-4387.
  48. ↑ "Dangers of Drinking Mouthwash | Alcohol Rehab Advice". alcoholrehabadvice.com. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  49. 1 2 "Behind the label: Listerine teeth and gum defence". The Ecologist. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  50. ↑ Rao KN, Mehta R, Dange P, Nagarkar NM (8 May 2024). "Alcohol-Containing Mouthwash and the Risk of Oral Cancer: Exploring the Association". Indian Journal of Surgical Oncology. 15 (3): 553–556. doi:10.1007/s13193-024-01948-4. ISSN   0975-7651. There is some evidence for alcohol-containing mouthwash use which is associated with the potential risk of developing carcinoma of oral cavity. The results are inconclusive.
  51. 1 2 3 Cawson RA, Odell EW, Porter S (2002). Cawson's Essentials of Oral Pathology and Oral Medicine (7th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN   978-0443071065.
  52. ↑ Kumbargere Nagraj, Sumanth; Eachempati, Prashanti; Uma, Eswara; Singh, Vijendra Pal; Ismail, Noorliza Mastura; Varghese, Eby (11 December 2019). Cochrane Oral Health Group (ed.). "Interventions for managing halitosis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019 (12): CD006701. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012213.pub2. PMC   6905014 . PMID   31825092.
  53. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Scully C (2013). Oral and maxillofacial medicine : the basis of diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 39, 41. ISBN   9780702049484.
  54. ↑ Radzki, Dominik; Wilhelm-Węglarz, Marta; Pruska, Katarzyna; Kusiak, Aida; Ordyniec-Kwaśnica, Iwona (January 2022). "A Fresh Look at Mouthwashes—What Is Inside and What Is It For?". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (7): 3926. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19073926 . ISSN   1660-4601. PMC   8997378 . PMID   35409608.
  55. ↑ Ribeiro LG, Hashizume LN, Maltz M (May 2007). "The effect of different formulations of chlorhexidine in reducing levels of mutans streptococci in the oral cavity: A systematic review of the literature". Journal of Dentistry. 35 (5): 359–70. doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2007.01.007. PMID   17391828.
  56. 1 2 3 4 5 James P, Worthington HV, Parnell C, Harding M, Lamont T, Cheung A, et al. (March 2017). "Chlorhexidine mouthrinse as an adjunctive treatment for gingival health". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3 (12): CD008676. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008676.pub2. PMC   6464488 . PMID   28362061.
  57. ↑ Ennibi O, Lakhdar L, Bouziane A, Bensouda Y, Abouqal R (January 2013). "Chlorhexidine alcohol base mouthrinse versus Chlorhexidine formaldehyde base mouthrinse efficacy on plaque control: double blind, randomized clinical trials". Medicina Oral, Patologia Oral y Cirugia Bucal. 18 (1): e135-9. doi:10.4317/medoral.17863. PMC   3548633 . PMID   23229237.
  58. ↑ Herrera D (March 2013). "Chlorhexidine mouthwash reduces plaque and gingivitis". Evidence-Based Dentistry. 14 (1): 17–8. doi: 10.1038/sj.ebd.6400915 . PMID   23579302.
  59. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "Mouthwashes, gargles, and dentifrices". British National Formulary March 2014. BMJ Group and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain 2014.
  60. 1 2 3 Daly, BJ; Sharif, MO; Jones, K; Worthington, HV; Beattie, A (26 September 2022). "Local interventions for the management of alveolar osteitis (dry socket)". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2022 (9): CD006968. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006968.pub3. PMC   9511819 . PMID   36156769.
  61. ↑ Swaaij, Bregje W. M.; van der Weijden, G. A. (Fridus); Bakker, Eric W. P.; Graziani, Filippo; Slot, Dagmar E. (August 2019). "Does chlorhexidine mouthwash, with an anti-discoloration system, reduce tooth surface discoloration without losing its efficacy? A systematic review and meta-analysis". International Journal of Dental Hygiene. 18 (1): 27–43. doi: 10.1111/idh.12402 . PMC   7003798 . PMID   31054209.
  62. ↑ "Effect of hexetidine mouthwash - systematic review". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
  63. ↑ Kerémi B, Márta K, Farkas K, Czumbel LM, Tóth B, Szakács Z, Csupor D, Czimmer J, Rumbus Z, Révész P, Németh A, Gerber G, Hegyi P, Varga G (2020). "Effects of Chlorine Dioxide on Oral Hygiene - A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Current Pharmaceutical Design. 26 (25): 3015–3025. doi:10.2174/1381612826666200515134450. PMC   8383470 . PMID   32410557.
  64. ↑ Szalai E, Tajti P, Szabó B, Hegyi P, Czumbel LM, Shojazadeh S, Varga G, Németh O, Keremi B (2023). "Daily use of chlorine dioxide effectively treats halitosis: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". PLOS ONE. 18 (1): e0280377. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1880377S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280377 . PMC   9836286 . PMID   36634129.
  65. 1 2 3 4 5 Beck J (19 March 2014). "Swishing With Oil for Oral Health: Not Recommended". The Atlantic.
  66. ↑ Grush L (24 March 2014). "What is oil pulling? Examining the ancient detoxifying ritual". Fox News Channel . Retrieved 24 March 2014.
  67. 1 2 3 4 Butler B (20 March 2014). "Everyone is talking about 'oil pulling.' But does this health practice actually work?". The Washington Post. Washington State, U.S.A.
  68. ↑ Asokan S, Emmadi P, Chamundeswari R (2009). "Effect of oil pulling on plaque induced gingivitis: a randomized, controlled, triple-blind study". Indian Journal of Dental Research. 20 (1): 47–51. doi: 10.4103/0970-9290.49067 . PMID   19336860.
  69. ↑ "A second look at oil pulling as dental home care therapy". 16 May 2014.
  70. ↑ Kim JY, Jung JW, Choi JC, Shin JW, Park IW, Choi BW (February 2014). "Recurrent lipoid pneumonia associated with oil pulling". The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. 18 (2): 251–2. doi:10.5588/ijtld.13.0852. PMID   24429325.
  71. ↑ Novella S (12 March 2014). "Oil Pulling Your Leg". Science Based Medicine.
  72. ↑ Arbogast S (21 May 2014). "Does 'Oil-Pulling' Actually Have Health Benefits?". CBS Pittsburgh.
  73. 1 2 Stoeken JE, Paraskevas S, van der Weijden GA (July 2007). "The long-term effect of a mouthrinse containing essential oils on dental plaque and gingivitis: a systematic review". Journal of Periodontology. 78 (7): 1218–28. doi:10.1902/jop.2007.060269. PMID   17608576.
  74. ↑ Iha K, Suzuki N, Yoneda M, Takeshita T, Hirofuji T (October 2013). "Effect of mouth cleaning with hinokitiol-containing gel on oral malodor: a randomized, open-label pilot study". Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology. 116 (4): 433–9. doi:10.1016/j.oooo.2013.05.021. PMID   23969334.
  75. ↑ Alshehri FA (January 2018). "The use of mouthwash containing essential oils (LISTERINE®) to improve oral health: A systematic review". The Saudi Dental Journal. 30 (1): 2–6. doi:10.1016/j.sdentj.2017.12.004. PMC   6112363 . PMID   30166864.
  76. ↑ Van Leeuwen MP, Slot DE, Van der Weijden GA (February 2011). "Essential oils compared to chlorhexidine with respect to plaque and parameters of gingival inflammation: a systematic review". Journal of Periodontology. 82 (2): 174–94. doi:10.1902/jop.2010.100266. PMID   21043801.
  77. ↑ Yazicioglu O, Ucuncu MK, Guven K (April 2024). "Ingredients in Commercially Available Mouthwashes". International Dental Journal. 74 (2): 223–241. doi:10.1016/j.identj.2023.08.004. PMC   10988267 . PMID   37709645. Amongst the mouthwashes included in our study, sodium fluoride, sodium monofluorophosphate, and stannous fluoride were found.
  78. ↑ Marinho VC, Chong LY, Worthington HV, Walsh T (July 2016). "Fluoride mouthrinses for preventing dental caries in children and adolescents". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 7 (7): CD002284. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002284.pub2. PMC   6457869 . PMID   27472005.
  79. ↑ Giertsen E, Emberland H, Scheie AA (1999). "Effects of mouth rinses with xylitol and fluoride on dental plaque and saliva". Caries Research. 33 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1159/000016492. PMID   9831777. S2CID   46789673.
  80. ↑ Wennström J, Lindhe J (April 1979). "Effect of hydrogen peroxide on developing plaque and gingivitis in man". Journal of Clinical Periodontology. 6 (2): 115–30. doi:10.1111/j.1600-051x.1979.tb02190.x. PMID   379049.
  81. ↑ Hoogedoorn H (1985). "Activation of the salivary peroxidase system: clinical studies". In Tenovuo JO, Pruitt KM (eds.). The Lactoperoxidase system: chemistry and biological significance. New York: Dekker. pp. 217–228. ISBN   978-0-8247-7298-7.
  82. ↑ Yamashita S, Sato S, Kakiuchi Y, Miyabe M, Yamaguchi H (November 2002). "Lidocaine toxicity during frequent viscous lidocaine use for painful tongue ulcer". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 24 (5): 543–5. doi: 10.1016/S0885-3924(02)00498-0 . PMID   12547053.
  83. ↑ Elad S, Cohen G, Zylber-Katz E, Findler M, Galili D, Garfunkel AA, Or R (April 1999). "Systemic absorption of lidocaine after topical application for the treatment of oral mucositis in bone marrow transplantation patients". Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine. 28 (4): 170–2. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0714.1999.tb02018.x. PMID   10235370.
  84. ↑ "NYSTATIN- nystatin suspension". Qualitest Pharmaceuticals. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  85. ↑ Lynch MC, Perfekt R, McGuire JA, Milleman J, Gallob J, Amini P, Milleman K (July 2018). "Potassium oxalate mouthrinse reduces dentinal hypersensitivity: A randomized controlled clinical study". Journal of the American Dental Association. 149 (7): 608–618. doi: 10.1016/j.adaj.2018.02.027 . PMID   29728195.
  86. ↑ Satomura K, Kitamura T, Kawamura T, Shimbo T, Watanabe M, Kamei M, et al. (November 2005). "Prevention of upper respiratory tract infections by gargling: a randomized trial". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 29 (4): 302–7. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.06.013. PMID   16242593.
  87. ↑ To gargle or not to gargle? Japan Times, 15 December 2009
  88. ↑ Kawana R, Kitamura T, Nakagomi O, Matsumoto I, Arita M, Yoshihara N, et al. (1997). "Inactivation of human viruses by povidone-iodine in comparison with other antiseptics". Dermatology. 195 Suppl 2 (2): 29–35. doi:10.1159/000246027. PMID   9403252.
  89. ↑ Bidra AS, Pelletier JS, Westover JB, Frank S, Brown SM, Tessema B (August 2020). "Comparison of In Vitro Inactivation of SARS CoV-2 with Hydrogen Peroxide and Povidone-Iodine Oral Antiseptic Rinses". Journal of Prosthodontics. 29 (7): 599–603. doi:10.1111/jopr.13220. PMC   7361576 . PMID   32608097.
  90. ↑ Maurya RK, Singh H, Kapoor P, Sharma P, Srivastava D (March 2021). "Povidone-iodine preprocedural rinse-An evidence-based, second-line defense against severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in dental healthcare". Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. 43 (6): 822–824. doi:10.1017/ice.2021.90. PMC   7985894 . PMID   33706836.
  91. ↑ "COLCORONA COVID19 Clinical Trial". www.colcorona.net. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  92. ↑ Leukoplakia Archived 3 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine , (pdf format) hosted by the American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. Page accessed on 19 December 2006.
  93. ↑ Neville BW, Damm DD, Allen CM, Bouquot JE (2002). Oral & maxillofacial pathology (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. pp. 337–345. ISBN   978-0721690032.
  94. ↑ Edwards C, Stillman P (2006). Minor Illness or Major Disease?: The Clinical Pharmacist in the Community (4th ed.). London [u.a.]: Pharmaceutical Press. p. 223. ISBN   9780853696278.
  95. 1 2 3 4 5 Wray D, Stenhouse D, Lee D, Clark AJ (2003). Textbook of General and Oral Surgery. Edinburgh [etc.]: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 199, 210, 222. ISBN   978-0443070839.
  96. ↑ Rosenberg M (April 2002). "The science of bad breath". Scientific American. 286 (4): 72–9. Bibcode:2002SciAm.286d..72R. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0402-72. PMID   11905111.
  97. 1 2 Saunders DP, Epstein JB, Elad S, A Mario J, Bossi P, van de Wetering MD, et al. (November 2013). "Systematic review of antimicrobials, mucosal coating agents, anesthetics, and analgesics for the management of oral mucositis in cancer patients". Supportive Care in Cancer. 21 (11): 3191–207. doi: 10.1007/s00520-013-1871-y . PMID   23832272.
  98. ↑ Yarom N, Zelig K, Epstein JB, Gorsky M (June 2017). "The efficacy of minocycline mouth rinses on the symptoms associated with recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study assessing different doses of oral rinse". Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology. 123 (6): 675–679. doi:10.1016/j.oooo.2017.02.013. PMID   28411006.
  99. ↑ Greenberg MS, Glick M (2003). Burket's oral medicine diagnosis & treatment (10th ed.). Hamilton, Ont.: BC Decker. ISBN   978-1550091861.
  100. ↑ "Products That Contain Triclosan". drbenkim.com.
  101. ↑ "New studies show dangers of Triclosan in Toothpastes and Mouthwash". New York Orthodontists. 15 August 2012.
  102. ↑ "FAMILY GENTLE DENTAL CARE - Mouth Rinses". 14 September 2022.
  103. ↑ McNamara M. "Zinc for Bad Breath (Halitosis)". LIVESTRONG.COM. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.