Headache

Last updated

Headache
Other namesCephalalgia
Symptoms-headache.jpg
Person with a headache
Specialty Neurology
Types Tension headache, cluster headache, sinusitis, migraine headache, hangover headache, cold-stimulus headache (brain freeze)
TreatmentOver-the-counter painkillers, sleep, drinking water, eating food, head or neck massage

Headache, also known as cephalalgia, is the symptom of pain in the face, head, or neck. It can occur as a migraine, tension-type headache, or cluster headache. [1] [2] There is an increased risk of depression in those with severe headaches. [3]

Contents

Headaches can occur as a result of many conditions. There are a number of different classification systems for headaches. The most well-recognized is that of the International Headache Society, which classifies it into more than 150 types of primary and secondary headaches. Causes of headaches may include dehydration; fatigue; sleep deprivation; stress; [4] the effects of medications (overuse) and recreational drugs, including withdrawal; viral infections; loud noises; head injury; rapid ingestion of a very cold food or beverage; and dental or sinus issues (such as sinusitis). [5]

Treatment of a headache depends on the underlying cause, but commonly involves pain medication (especially in case of migraine or cluster headaches). [6] A headache is one of the most commonly experienced of all physical discomforts. [7]

About half of adults have a headache in a given year. [3] Tension headaches are the most common, [7] affecting about 1.6 billion people (21.8% of the population) followed by migraine headaches which affect about 848 million (11.7%). [8]

Causes

There are more than 200 types of headaches. Some are harmless and some are life-threatening. The description of the headache and findings on neurological examination, determine whether additional tests are needed and what treatment is best. [9]

Headaches are broadly classified as "primary" or "secondary". [10] Primary headaches are benign, recurrent headaches not caused by underlying disease or structural problems. For example, migraine is a type of primary headache. While primary headaches may cause significant daily pain and disability, they are not dangerous from a physiological point of view. Secondary headaches are caused by an underlying disease, like an infection, head injury, vascular disorders, brain bleed, stomach irritation, or tumors. Secondary headaches can be dangerous. Certain "red flags" or warning signs indicate a secondary headache may be dangerous. [11]

Primary

Ninety percent of all headaches are primary headaches. [12] Primary headaches usually first start when people are between 20 and 40 years old. [13] [14] The most common types of primary headaches are migraines and tension-type headaches. [14] They have different characteristics. Migraines typically present with pulsing head pain, nausea, photophobia (sensitivity to light) and phonophobia (sensitivity to sound). [15] Tension-type headaches usually present with non-pulsing "bandlike" pressure on both sides of the head, not accompanied by other symptoms. [16] [17] Such kind of headaches may be further classified into-episodic and chronic tension type headaches [18] Other very rare types of primary headaches include: [11]

Secondary

Headaches may be caused by problems elsewhere in the head or neck. Some of these are not harmful, such as cervicogenic headache (pain arising from the neck muscles). The excessive use of painkillers can paradoxically cause worsening painkiller headaches. [9] [19]

More serious causes of secondary headaches include the following: [11]

Gastrointestinal disorders may cause headaches, including Helicobacter pylori infection, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, gastroparesis, and hepatobiliary disorders. [20] [21] [22] The treatment of the gastrointestinal disorders may lead to a remission or improvement of headaches. [22]

Migraine headaches are also associated with Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (CVS). CVS is characterized by episodes of severe vomiting, and often occur alongside symptoms similar to those of migraine headaches (photophobia, abdominal pain, etc.). [23]

Pathophysiology

The brain itself is not sensitive to pain, because it lacks pain receptors. However, several areas of the head and neck do have pain receptors and can thus sense pain. These include the extracranial arteries, middle meningeal artery, large veins, venous sinuses, cranial and spinal nerves, head and neck muscles, the meninges, falx cerebri, parts of the brainstem, eyes, ears, teeth, and lining of the mouth. [24] [25] Pial arteries, rather than pial veins are responsible for pain production. [11]

Headaches often result from traction or irritation of the meninges and blood vessels. [26] The pain receptors may be stimulated by head trauma or tumours and cause headaches. Blood vessel spasms, dilated blood vessels, inflammation or infection of meninges and muscular tension can also stimulate pain receptors. [25] Once stimulated, a nociceptor sends a message up the length of the nerve fibre to the nerve cells in the brain, signalling that a part of the body hurts. [27]

Primary headaches are more difficult to understand than secondary headaches. The exact mechanisms which cause migraines, tension headaches and cluster headaches are not known. [28] There have been different hypotheses over time that attempt to explain what happens in the brain to cause these headaches. [29]

Migraines are currently thought to be caused by dysfunction of the nerves in the brain. [30] Previously, migraines were thought to be caused by a primary problem with the blood vessels in the brain. [31] This vascular theory, which was developed in the 20th century by Wolff, suggested that the aura in migraines is caused by constriction of intracranial vessels (vessels inside the brain), and the headache itself is caused by rebound dilation of extracranial vessels (vessels just outside the brain). Dilation of these extracranial blood vessels activates the pain receptors in the surrounding nerves, causing a headache. The vascular theory is no longer accepted. [30] [32] Studies have shown migraine head pain is not accompanied by extracranial vasodilation, but rather only has some mild intracranial vasodilation. [33]

Currently, most specialists think migraines are due to a primary problem with the nerves in the brain. [30] Auras are thought to be caused by a wave of increased activity of neurons in the cerebral cortex (a part of the brain) known as cortical spreading depression [34] followed by a period of depressed activity. [35] Some people think headaches are caused by the activation of sensory nerves which release peptides or serotonin, causing inflammation in arteries, dura and meninges and also cause some vasodilation. Triptans, medications that treat migraines, block serotonin receptors and constrict blood vessels. [36]

People who are more susceptible to experiencing migraines without headaches are those who have a family history of migraines, women, and women who are experiencing hormonal changes or are taking birth control pills or are prescribed hormone replacement therapy. [37]

Tension headaches are thought to be caused by the activation of peripheral nerves in the head and neck muscles. [38]

Cluster headaches involve overactivation of the trigeminal nerve and hypothalamus in the brain, but the exact cause is unknown. [28] [39]

Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis of headaches
Tension headache New daily persistent headache Cluster headache Migraine
mild to moderate dull or aching painsevere painmoderate to severe pain
duration of 30 minutes to several hoursduration of at least four hours dailyduration of 30 minutes to 3 hoursduration of 4 hours to 3 days
Occur in periods of 15 days a month for three monthsmay happen multiple times in a day for monthsperiodic occurrence; several per month to several per year
located as tightness or pressure across headlocated on one or both sides of the headlocated one side of head focused at eye or temple located on one or both sides of head
consistent painpain describable as sharp or stabbingpulsating or throbbing pain
no nausea or vomitingnausea, perhaps with vomiting
no aura no auraauras
uncommonly, light sensitivity or noise sensitivitymay be accompanied by running nose, tears, and drooping eyelid, often only on one sidesensitivity to movement, light, and noise
exacerbated by regular use of acetaminophen or NSAIDS may exist with tension headache [40]

Most headaches can be diagnosed by the clinical history alone. [11] If the symptoms described by the person sound dangerous, further testing with neuroimaging or lumbar puncture may be necessary. Electroencephalography (EEG) is not useful for headache diagnosis. [41]

The first step to diagnosing a headache is to determine if the headache is old or new. [42] A "new headache" can be a headache that has started recently, or a chronic headache that has changed character. [42] For example, if a person has chronic weekly headaches with pressure on both sides of his head, and then develops a sudden severe throbbing headache on one side of his head, they have a new headache.[ citation needed ]

Red flags

It can be challenging to differentiate between low-risk, benign headaches and high-risk, dangerous headaches since symptoms are often similar. [43] Headaches that are possibly dangerous require further lab tests and imaging to diagnose. [14]

The American College for Emergency Physicians published criteria for low-risk headaches. They are as follows: [44]

A number of characteristics make it more likely that the headache is due to potentially dangerous secondary causes which may be life-threatening or cause long-term damage. These "red flag" symptoms mean that a headache warrants further investigation with neuroimaging and lab tests. [14]

In general, people complaining of their "first" or "worst" headache warrant imaging and further workup. [14] People with progressively worsening headache also warrant imaging, as they may have a mass or a bleed that is gradually growing, pressing on surrounding structures and causing worsening pain. [43] People with neurological findings on exam, such as weakness, also need further workup. [43]

The American Headache Society recommends using "SSNOOP", a mnemonic to remember the red flags for identifying a secondary headache: [42]

Other red flag symptoms include: [14] [42] [43] [45]

Red FlagPossible causesThe reason why a red flag indicates possible causesDiagnostic tests
New headache after age 50Temporal arteritis, mass in brainTemporal arteritis is an inflammation of vessels close to the temples in older people, which decreases blood flow to the brain and causes pain. May also have tenderness in temples or jaw claudication. Some brain cancers are more common in older people.Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (diagnostic test for temporal arteritis), neuroimaging
Very sudden onset headache (thunderclap headache)Brain bleed (subarachnoid hemorrhage, hemorrhage into mass lesion, vascular malformation), pituitary apoplexy, mass (especially in posterior fossa)A bleed in the brain irritates the meninges which causes pain. Pituitary apoplexy (bleeding or impaired blood supply to the pituitary gland at the base of the brain) is often accompanied by double vision or visual field defects, since the pituitary gland is right next to the optic chiasm (eye nerves). Neuroimaging, lumbar puncture if computed tomography is negative
Headaches increasing in frequency and severityMass, subdural hematoma, medication overuseAs a brain mass gets larger, or a subdural hematoma (blood outside the vessels underneath the dura) it pushes more on surrounding structures causing pain. Medication overuse headaches worsen with more medication taken over time.Neuroimaging, drug screen
New onset headache in a person with possible HIV or cancer Meningitis (chronic or carcinomatous), brain abscess including toxoplasmosis, metastasis People with HIV or cancer are immunosuppressed so are likely to get infections of the meninges or infections in the brain causing abscesses. Cancer can metastasize, or travel through the blood or lymph to other sites in the body.Neuroimaging, lumbar puncture if neuroimaging is negative
Headache with signs of total body illness (fever, stiff neck, rash) Meningitis, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain tissue), Lyme disease, collagen vascular disease A stiff neck, or inability to flex the neck due to pain, indicates inflammation of the meninges. Other signs of systemic illness indicates infection.Neuroimaging, lumbar puncture, serology (diagnostic blood tests for infections)
Papilledema Brain mass, benign intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri), meningitis Increased intracranial pressure pushes on the eyes (from inside the brain) and causes papilledema.Neuroimaging, lumbar puncture
Severe headache following head traumaBrain bleeds (intracranial hemorrhage, subdural hematoma, epidural hematoma), post-traumatic headacheTrauma can cause bleeding in the brain or shake the nerves, causing a post-traumatic headacheNeuroimaging of brain, skull, and possibly cervical spine
Inability to move a limbArteriovenous malformation, collagen vascular disease, intracranial mass lesionFocal neurological signs indicate something is pushing against nerves in the brain responsible for one part of the bodyNeuroimaging, blood tests for collagen vascular diseases
Change in personality, consciousness, or mental status Central nervous system infection, intracranial bleed, massChange in mental status indicates a global infection or inflammation of the brain, or a large bleed compressing the brainstem where the consciousness centers lieBlood tests, lumbar puncture, neuroimaging
Headache triggered by cough, exertion or while engaged in sexual intercourseMass lesion, subarachnoid hemorrhageCoughing and exertion increases the intra cranial pressure, which may cause a vessel to burst, causing a subarachnoid hemorrhage. A mass lesion already increases intracranial pressure, so an additional increase in intracranial pressure from coughing etc. will cause pain.Neuroimaging, lumbar puncture

Old headaches

Old headaches are usually primary headaches and are not dangerous. They are most often caused by migraines or tension headaches. Migraines are often unilateral, pulsing headaches accompanied by nausea or vomiting. There may be an aura (visual symptoms, numbness or tingling) 30–60 minutes before the headache, warning the person of a headache. Migraines may also not have auras. [45] Tension-type headaches usually have bilateral "bandlike" pressure on both sides of the head usually without nausea or vomiting. However, some symptoms from both headache groups may overlap. It is important to distinguish between the two because the treatments are different. [45]

The mnemonic 'POUND' helps distinguish between migraines and tension-type headaches. POUND stands for:

  • Pulsatile quality of headache
  • One-day duration (four to 72 hours)
  • Unilateral location
  • Nausea or vomiting
  • Disabling intensity [46]

One review article found that if 4–5 of the POUND characteristics are present, a migraine is 24 times as likely a diagnosis than a tension-type headache (likelihood ratio 24). If 3 characteristics of POUND are present, migraine is 3 times more likely a diagnosis than tension type headache (likelihood ratio 3). [17] If only 2 POUND characteristics are present, tension-type headaches are 60% more likely (likelihood ratio 0.41). Another study found the following factors independently each increase the chance of migraine over tension-type headache: nausea, photophobia, phonophobia, exacerbation by physical activity, unilateral, throbbing quality, chocolate as a headache trigger, and cheese as a headache trigger. [47]

Cluster headaches are relatively rare (1 in 1000 people) and are more common in men than women. [48] They present with sudden onset explosive pain around one eye and are accompanied by autonomic symptoms (tearing, runny nose and red eye). [11]

Temporomandibular jaw pain (chronic pain in the jaw joint), and cervicogenic headache (headache caused by pain in muscles of the neck) are also possible diagnoses. [42]

For chronic, unexplained headaches, keeping a headache diary can be useful for tracking symptoms and identifying triggers, such as association with menstrual cycle, exercise and food. While mobile electronic diaries for smartphones are becoming increasingly common, a recent review found most are developed with a lack of evidence base and scientific expertise. [49]

Cephalalgiaphobia is fear of headaches or getting a headache.

New headaches

New headaches are more likely to be dangerous secondary headaches. They can, however, simply be the first presentation of a chronic headache syndrome, like migraine or tension-type headaches.

One recommended diagnostic approach is as follows. [50] If any urgent red flags are present such as visual loss, new seizures, new weakness, new confusion, further workup with imaging and possibly a lumbar puncture should be done (see red flags section for more details). If the headache is sudden onset (thunderclap headache), a computed tomography test to look for a brain bleed (subarachnoid hemorrhage) should be done. If the CT scan does not show a bleed, a lumbar puncture should be done to look for blood in the CSF, as the CT scan can be falsely negative and subarachnoid hemorrhages can be fatal. If there are signs of infection such as fever, rash, or stiff neck, a lumbar puncture to look for meningitis should be considered. If there is jaw claudication and scalp tenderness in an older person, a temporal artery biopsy to look for temporal arteritis should be performed and immediate treatment should be started.[ citation needed ]

Neuroimaging

Old headaches

The US Headache Consortium has guidelines for neuroimaging of non-acute headaches. [51] Most old, chronic headaches do not require neuroimaging. If a person has the characteristic symptoms of a migraine, neuroimaging is not needed as it is very unlikely the person has an intracranial abnormality. [52] If the person has neurological findings, such as weakness, on exam, neuroimaging may be considered.[ citation needed ]

New headaches

All people who present with red flags indicating a dangerous secondary headache should receive neuroimaging. [45] The best form of neuroimaging for these headaches is controversial. [14] Non-contrast computerized tomography (CT) scan is usually the first step in head imaging as it is readily available in Emergency Departments and hospitals and is cheaper than MRI. Non-contrast CT is best for identifying an acute head bleed. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is best for brain tumors and problems in the posterior fossa, or back of the brain. [14] MRI is more sensitive for identifying intracranial problems, however it can pick up brain abnormalities that are not relevant to the person's headaches. [14]

The American College of Radiology recommends the following imaging tests for different specific situations: [53]

Clinical FeaturesRecommended neuroimaging test
Headache in immunocompromised people (cancer, HIV) MRI of head with or without contrast
Headache in people older than 60 with suspected temporal arteritisMRI of head with or without contrast
Headache with suspected meningitisCT or MRI without contrast
Severe headache in pregnancyCT or MRI without contrast
Severe unilateral headache caused by possible dissection of carotid or arterial arteriesMRI of head with or without contrast, magnetic resonance angiography or Computed Tomography Angiography of head and neck.
Sudden onset headache or worst headache of lifeCT of head without contrast, Computed Tomography Angiography of head and neck with contrast, magnetic resonance angiography of head and neck with and without contrast, MRI of head without contrast

Lumbar puncture

A lumbar puncture is a procedure in which cerebral spinal fluid is removed from the spine with a needle. A lumbar puncture is necessary to look for infection or blood in the spinal fluid. A lumbar puncture can also evaluate the pressure in the spinal column, which can be useful for people with idiopathic intracranial hypertension (usually young, obese women who have increased intracranial pressure), or other causes of increased intracranial pressure. In most cases, a CT scan should be done first. [11]

Classification

Headaches are most thoroughly classified by the International Headache Society's International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD), which published the second edition in 2004. [54] The third edition of the International Headache Classification was published in 2013 in a beta version ahead of the final version. [55] This classification is accepted by the WHO. [56]

Other classification systems exist. One of the first published attempts was in 1951. [57] The US National Institutes of Health developed a classification system in 1962. [58]

ICHD-2

The International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD) is an in-depth hierarchical classification of headaches published by the International Headache Society. It contains explicit (operational) diagnostic criteria for headache disorders. The first version of the classification, ICHD-1, was published in 1988. The current revision, ICHD-2, was published in 2004. [59] The classification uses numeric codes. The top, one-digit diagnostic level includes 14 headache groups. The first four of these are classified as primary headaches, groups 5-12 as secondary headaches, cranial neuralgia, central and primary facial pain and other headaches for the last two groups. [60]

The ICHD-2 classification defines migraines, tension-types headaches, cluster headache and other trigeminal autonomic headache as the main types of primary headaches. [54] Also, according to the same classification, stabbing headaches and headaches due to cough, exertion and sexual activity (sexual headache) are classified as primary headaches. The daily-persistent headaches along with the hypnic headache and thunderclap headaches are considered primary headaches as well. [61] [62]

Secondary headaches are classified based on their cause and not on their symptoms. [54] According to the ICHD-2 classification, the main types of secondary headaches include those that are due to head or neck trauma such as whiplash injury, intracranial hematoma, post craniotomy or other head or neck injury. Headaches caused by cranial or cervical vascular disorders such as ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack, non-traumatic intracranial hemorrhage, vascular malformations or arteritis are also defined as secondary headaches. This type of headache may also be caused by cerebral venous thrombosis or different intracranial vascular disorders. Other secondary headaches are those due to intracranial disorders that are not vascular such as low or high pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid pressure, non-infectious inflammatory disease, intracranial neoplasm, epileptic seizure or other types of disorders or diseases that are intracranial but that are not associated with the vasculature of the central nervous system.[ citation needed ]

ICHD-2 classifies headaches that are caused by the ingestion of a certain substance or by its withdrawal as secondary headaches as well. This type of headache may result from the overuse of some medications or exposure to some substances. HIV/AIDS, intracranial infections and systemic infections may also cause secondary headaches. The ICHD-2 system of classification includes the headaches associated with homeostasis disorders in the category of secondary headaches. This means that headaches caused by dialysis, high blood pressure, hypothyroidism, cephalalgia and even fasting are considered secondary headaches. Secondary headaches, according to the same classification system, can also be due to the injury of any of the facial structures including teeth, jaws, or temporomandibular joint. Headaches caused by psychiatric disorders such as somatization or psychotic disorders are also classified as secondary headaches.[ citation needed ]

The ICHD-2 classification puts cranial neuralgias and other types of neuralgia in a different category. According to this system, there are 19 types of neuralgias and headaches due to different central causes of facial pain. Moreover, the ICHD-2 includes a category that contains all the headaches that cannot be classified.[ citation needed ]

Although the ICHD-2 is the most complete headache classification there is and it includes frequency in the diagnostic criteria of some types of headaches (primarily primary headaches), it does not specifically code frequency or severity which are left at the discretion of the examiner. [54]

NIH

The NIH classification consists of brief definitions of a limited number of headaches. [63]

The NIH system of classification is more succinct and only describes five categories of headaches. In this case, primary headaches are those that do not show organic or structural causes. According to this classification, primary headaches can only be vascular, myogenic, cervicogenic, traction, and inflammatory. [64]

Management

An old advertisement for a headache medicine Image-Lottie Collins sings and dances to the tunes of Ta-Ra-Ra Boom-de-ay in a Bromo-Seltzer ad.jpg
An old advertisement for a headache medicine

Primary headache syndromes have many different possible treatments. In those with chronic headaches the long term use of opioids appears to result in greater harm than benefit. [65]

Secondary headaches (caused by another disease)

Treatment of secondary headaches involves treating their underlying cause. For example, a person with meningitis will require antibiotics, and a person with a brain tumor may require surgery, chemotherapy or brain radiation. The possible origins of a headache have been studied and classified.

Migraines

Migraine can be somewhat improved by lifestyle changes, but most people require medicines to control their symptoms. [11] Medications are either to prevent getting migraines, or to reduce symptoms once a migraine starts.[ citation needed ]

Preventive medications are generally recommended when people have more than four attacks of migraine per month, headaches last longer than 12 hours or the headaches are very disabling. [11] [66] Possible therapies include beta blockers, antidepressants, anticonvulsants and NSAIDs. [66] The type of preventive medicine is usually chosen based on the other symptoms the person has. For example, if the person also has depression, an antidepressant is a good choice.[ citation needed ]

Abortive therapies for migraines may be oral, if the migraine is mild to moderate, or may require stronger medicine given intravenously or intramuscularly. Mild to moderate headaches should first be treated with acetaminophen (paracetamol) or NSAIDs, like ibuprofen. If accompanied by nausea or vomiting, an antiemetic such as metoclopramide (Reglan) can be given orally or rectally. Moderate to severe attacks should be treated first with an oral triptan, a medication that mimics serotonin (an agonist) and causes mild vasoconstriction. If accompanied by nausea and vomiting, parenteral (through a needle in the skin) triptans and antiemetics can be given. [67]

Sphenopalatine ganglion block (SPG block, also known nasal ganglion block or pterygopalatine ganglion blocks) can abort and prevent migraines, tension headaches and cluster headaches. It was originally described by American ENT surgeon Greenfield Sluder in 1908. Both blocks and neurostimulation have been studied as treatment for headaches. [68]

Several complementary and alternative strategies can help with migraines. The American Academy of Neurology guidelines for migraine treatment in 2000 stated relaxation training, electromyographic feedback and cognitive behavioral therapy may be considered for migraine treatment, along with medications. [69]

Tension-type headaches

Tension-type headaches can usually be managed with NSAIDs (ibuprofen, naproxen, aspirin), or acetaminophen. [11] Triptans are not helpful in tension-type headaches unless the person also has migraines. For chronic tension type headaches, amitriptyline is the only medication proven to help. [11] [70] [71] Amitriptyline is a medication which treats depression and also independently treats pain. It works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, and also reduces muscle tenderness by a separate mechanism. [70] Studies evaluating acupuncture for tension-type headaches have been mixed. [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] Overall, they show that acupuncture is probably not helpful for tension-type headaches.

Cluster headaches

Abortive therapy for cluster headaches includes subcutaneous sumatriptan (injected under the skin) and triptan nasal sprays. High flow oxygen therapy also helps with relief. [11]

For people with extended periods of cluster headaches, preventive therapy can be necessary. Verapamil is recommended as first line treatment. Lithium can also be useful. For people with shorter bouts, a short course of prednisone (10 days) can be helpful. Ergotamine is useful if given 1–2 hours before an attack. [11]

Neuromodulation

Peripheral neuromodulation has tentative benefits in primary headaches including cluster headaches and chronic migraine. [77] How it may work is still being looked into. [77]

Epidemiology

Literature reviews find that approximately 64–77% of adults have had a headache at some point in their lives. [78] [79] During each year, on average, 46–53% of people have headaches. [78] [79] However, the prevalence of headache varies widely depending on how the survey was conducted, with studies finding lifetime prevalence of as low as 8% to as high as 96%. [78] [79] [80] Most of these headaches are not dangerous. Only approximately 1–5% of people who seek emergency treatment for headaches have a serious underlying cause. [81]

More than 90% of headaches are primary headaches. [82] Most of these primary headaches are tension headaches. [79] Most people with tension headaches have "episodic" tension headaches that come and go. Only 3.3% of adults have chronic tension headaches, with headaches for more than 15 days in a month. [79]

Approximately 12–18% of people in the world have migraines. [79] More women than men experience migraines. In Europe and North America, 5–9% of men experience migraines, while 12–25% of women experience migraines. [78]

Cluster headaches are relatively uncommon. They affect only 1–3 per thousand people in the world. Cluster headaches affect approximately three times as many men as women. [79]

History

An 1819 caricature by George Cruikshank depicting a headache Cruikshank - The Head Ache.png
An 1819 caricature by George Cruikshank depicting a headache

The first recorded classification system was published by Aretaeus of Cappadocia, a medical scholar of Greco-Roman antiquity. He made a distinction between three different types of headache: i) cephalalgia, by which he indicates a sudden onset, temporary headache; ii) cephalea, referring to a chronic type of headache; and iii) heterocrania, a paroxysmal headache on one side of the head. Another classification system that resembles the modern ones was published by Thomas Willis, in De Cephalalgia in 1672. In 1787 Christian Baur generally divided headaches into idiopathic (primary headaches) and symptomatic (secondary ones), and defined 84 categories. [63]

Children

In general, children experience the same types of headaches as adults do, but their symptoms may be slightly different. The diagnostic approach to headaches in children is similar to that of adults. However, young children may not be able to verbalize pain well. [83] If a young child is fussy, they may have a headache. [84]

Approximately 1% of emergency department visits for children are for headache. [85] [86] Most of these headaches are not dangerous. The most common type of headache seen in pediatric emergency rooms is headache caused by a cold (28.5%). Other headaches diagnosed in the emergency department include post-traumatic headache (20%), headache related to a problem with a ventriculoperitoneal shunt (a device put into the brain to remove excess CSF and reduce pressure in the brain) (11.5%) and migraine (8.5%). [86] [87] The most common serious headaches found in children include brain bleeds (subdural hematoma, epidural hematoma), brain abscesses, meningitis and ventriculoperitoneal shunt malfunction. Only 4–6.9% of kids with a headache have a serious cause. [84]

Just as in adults, most headaches are benign, but when head pain is accompanied with other symptoms such as speech problems, muscle weakness, and loss of vision, a more serious underlying cause may exist: hydrocephalus, meningitis, encephalitis, abscess, hemorrhage, tumor, blood clots, or head trauma. In these cases, the headache evaluation may include CT scan or MRI in order to look for possible structural disorders of the central nervous system. [88] If a child with a recurrent headache has a normal physical exam, neuroimaging is not recommended. Guidelines state children with abnormal neurologic exams, confusion, seizures and recent onset of worst headache of life, change in headache type or anything suggesting neurologic problems should receive neuroimaging. [84]

When children complain of headaches, many parents are concerned about a brain tumor. Generally, headaches caused by brain masses are incapacitating and accompanied by vomiting. [84] One study found characteristics associated with brain tumor in children are: headache for greater than 6 months, headache related to sleep, vomiting, confusion, no visual symptoms, no family history of migraine and abnormal neurologic exam. [89]

Some measures can help prevent headaches in children. Drinking plenty of water throughout the day, avoiding caffeine, getting enough and regular sleep, eating balanced meals at the proper times, and reducing stress and excess of activities may prevent headaches. [90] Treatments for children are similar to those for adults, however certain medications such as narcotics should not be given to children. [84]

Children who have headaches will not necessarily have headaches as adults. In one study of 100 children with headache, eight years later 44% of those with tension headache and 28% of those with migraines were headache free. [91] In another study of people with chronic daily headache, 75% did not have chronic daily headaches two years later, and 88% did not have chronic daily headaches eight years later. [92]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Migraine</span> Disorder resulting in recurrent moderate-severe headaches

Migraine is a genetically-influenced complex neurological disorder characterized by episodes of moderate-to-severe headache, most often unilateral and generally associated with nausea and light and sound sensitivity. Other characterizing symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, cognitive dysfunction, allodynia, and dizziness. Exacerbation of headache symptoms during physical activity is another distinguishing feature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Idiopathic intracranial hypertension</span> Medical condition

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), previously known as pseudotumor cerebri and benign intracranial hypertension, is a condition characterized by increased intracranial pressure without a detectable cause. The main symptoms are headache, vision problems, ringing in the ears, and shoulder pain. Complications may include vision loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cluster headache</span> Neurological disorder

Cluster headache is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent severe headaches on one side of the head, typically around the eye(s). There is often accompanying eye watering, nasal congestion, or swelling around the eye on the affected side. These symptoms typically last 15 minutes to 3 hours. Attacks often occur in clusters which typically last for weeks or months and occasionally more than a year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tension headache</span> Medical condition

Tension headache, stress headache, or tension-type headache (TTH), is the most common type of primary headache. The pain usually radiates from the lower back of the head, the neck, the eyes, or other muscle groups in the body typically affecting both sides of the head. Tension-type headaches account for nearly 90% of all headaches.

A medication overuse headache (MOH), also known as a rebound headache, usually occurs when painkillers are taken frequently to relieve headaches. These cases are often referred to as painkiller headaches. Rebound headaches frequently occur daily, can be very painful and are a common cause of chronic daily headache. They typically occur in patients with an underlying headache disorder such as migraine or tension-type headache that "transforms" over time from an episodic condition to chronic daily headache due to excessive intake of acute headache relief medications. MOH is a serious, disabling and well-characterized disorder, which represents a worldwide problem and is now considered the third-most prevalent type of headache. The proportion of patients in the population with Chronic Daily Headache (CDH) who overuse acute medications ranges from 18% to 33%. The prevalence of medication overuse headache (MOH) varies depending on the population studied and diagnostic criteria used. However, it is estimated that MOH affects approximately 1-2% of the general population, but its relative frequency is much higher in secondary and tertiary care.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Visual snow syndrome</span> Visual impairment

Visual snow syndrome (VSS) is an uncommon neurological condition in which the primary symptom is that affected individuals see persistent flickering white, black, transparent, or colored dots across the whole visual field.

Sexual headache is a type of headache that occurs in the skull and neck during sexual activity, including masturbation or orgasm. These headaches are usually benign, but occasionally are caused by intracranial hemorrhage and cerebral infarction, especially if the pain is sudden and severe. They may be caused by general exertion, sexual excitement, or contraction of the neck and facial muscles. Most cases can be successfully treated with medication.

Mixed tension migraines are also known as mixed migraines or mixed headaches. They combine characteristics of tension headaches and migraines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurological disorder</span> Any disorder of the nervous system

A neurological disorder is any disorder of the nervous system. Structural, biochemical or electrical abnormalities in the brain, spinal cord or other nerves can result in a range of symptoms. Examples of symptoms include paralysis, muscle weakness, poor coordination, loss of sensation, seizures, confusion, pain, tauopathies, and altered levels of consciousness. There are many recognized neurological disorders, some are relatively common, but many are rare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orthostatic headache</span> Medical condition

Orthostatic headache is a medical condition in which a person develops a headache while vertical and the headache is relieved when horizontal. Previously it was often misdiagnosed as different primary headache disorders such as migraine or tension headaches. Increasing awareness of the symptom and its causes has prevented delayed or missed diagnosis.

New daily persistent headache (NDPH) is a primary headache syndrome which can mimic chronic migraine and chronic tension-type headache. The headache is daily and unremitting from very soon after onset, usually in a person who does not have a history of a primary headache disorder. The pain can be intermittent, but lasts more than 3 months. Headache onset is abrupt and people often remember the date, circumstance and, occasionally, the time of headache onset. One retrospective study stated that over 80% of patients could state the exact date their headache began.

The International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD) is a detailed hierarchical classification of all headache-related disorders published by the International Headache Society. It is considered the official classification of headaches by the World Health Organization, and, in 1992, was incorporated into the 10th edition of their International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). Each class of headache contains explicit diagnostic criteria—meaning that the criteria include quantities rather than vague terms like several or usually—that are based on clinical and laboratory observations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerebrospinal fluid leak</span> Leakage of fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord through tears in the dura mater

A cerebrospinal fluid leak is a medical condition where the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that surrounds the brain and spinal cord leaks out of one or more holes or tears in the dura mater. A CSF leak is classed as either spontaneous (primary), having no known cause, or nonspontaneous (secondary) where it is attributed to an underlying condition. Causes of a primary CSF leak are those of trauma including from an accident or intentional injury, or arising from a medical intervention known as iatrogenic. A basilar skull fracture as a cause can give the sign of CSF leakage from the ear, nose or mouth. A lumbar puncture can give the symptom of a post-dural-puncture headache.

The NIH classification of headaches consists of brief, relatively vague glossary-type definitions of a limited number of headaches.

The classification of all headaches, including migraines, is organized by the International Headache Society, and published in the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD). The current version, the ICHD-3 beta, was published in 2013.

Abdominal migraine(AM) is a functional disorder that usually manifests in childhood and adolescence, without a clear pathologic mechanism or biochemical irregularity. Children frequently experience sporadic episodes of excruciating central abdominal pain accompanied by migrainous symptoms like nausea, vomiting, severe headaches, and general pallor. Abdominal migraine can be diagnosed based on clinical criteria and the exclusion of other disorders.

Migraine may be treated either prophylactically (preventive) or abortively (rescue) for acute attacks. Migraine is an complex condition; there are various preventive treatments which disrupt different links in the chain of events that occur during a migraine attack. Rescue treatments also target and disrupt different processes occurring during migraine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orofacial pain</span> Pain of the mouth, jaws, or face

Orofacial pain (OFP) is a general term covering any pain which is felt in the mouth, jaws and the face. Orofacial pain is a common symptom, and there are many causes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Recurrent painful ophthalmoplegic neuropathy</span> Medical condition

Recurrent painful ophthalmoplegic neuropathy (RPON), previously known as ophthalmoplegic migraine (OM), is a rare neurological disorder that is characterized by repeated headache attacks and reversible ipsilateral paresis of one or more ocular cranial nerves (CN). Oculomotor nerve (CNIII) is by far the most common cranial nerve involves in RPON, while abducens nerve (CNVI) and trochlear nerve (CNIV) involvements are also reported. Globally, RPON was estimated to have an annual incidence rate of 0.7 per million as of 1990, no further epidemiological studies have been conducted. It occurs more often in children and females.

References

  1. ↑ "Headache disorders". The World Health Organization. 8 April 2016. Retrieved 2021-12-14.
  2. ↑ Silberstein SD (2022-03-09), Lynch ME, Craig KD, Peng PW (eds.), "Headache", Clinical Pain Management (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 336–342, doi:10.1002/9781119701170.ch32, ISBN   978-1-119-70115-6 , retrieved 2022-04-29
  3. 1 2 "Headache disorders Fact sheet N° 277". The World Health Organization. 8 April 2016. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
  4. ↑ Britton CB (2013), Green MW, Muskin PR (eds.), "Stress and headache", The Neuropsychiatry of Headache, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 54–62, doi:10.1017/cbo9781139206952.007, ISBN   978-1-107-02620-9 , retrieved 2022-04-29
  5. ↑ "Headache Causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  6. ↑ "Headache". Johns Hopkins Medicine. The Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 2021-12-14.
  7. 1 2 Ahmed F (August 2012). "Headache disorders: differentiating and managing the common subtypes". British Journal of Pain. 6 (3): 124–132. doi:10.1177/2049463712459691. PMC   4590146 . PMID   26516483.
  8. ↑ Vos T, Barber RM, Bell B, Bertozzi-Villa A, Biryukov S, Bolliger I, et al. (Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators) (August 2015). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Lancet. 386 (9995): 743–800. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60692-4. PMC   4561509 . PMID   26063472.
  9. 1 2 Scottish Intercollegiate Network (November 2008). Diagnosis and management of headache in adults. Edinburgh: NHS Quality Improvement Scotland. ISBN   978-1-905813-39-1. Archived from the original on 19 April 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
  10. ↑ Young CB (3 January 2012). "The Johns Hopkins Headache Center - Primary Exertion Headache". hopkinsmedicine.org. Archived from the original on 3 May 2014.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Goadsby PJ, Raskin NH (2012). "Chapter 14. Headache". In Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson J, Loscalzo J (eds.). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (18th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-174890-2.
  12. ↑ Damayanti Y, Marhaendraputro EA, Santoso WM, Rahmawati D (2021-03-02). "Profile of Primary Patients in Neurological Polyclinic". Journal of Pain, Headache and Vertigo. 2 (1): 1–4. doi: 10.21776/ub.jphv.2021.002.01.1 . ISSN   2723-3960. S2CID   233777394.
  13. ↑ Straube A, Andreou A (April 2019). "Primary headaches during lifespan". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 20 (1): 35. doi: 10.1186/s10194-019-0985-0 . PMC   6734460 . PMID   30961531.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 South-Paul JE, Matheny SC, Lewis EL (2011). Clinch C. Chapter 28. Evaluation & Management of Headache - CURRENT Diagnosis & Treatment in Family Medicine. Lange Current Series (Third ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-162436-7.
  15. ↑ "Migraine - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2021-12-15.
  16. ↑ "Tension Headaches". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. 8 August 2021. Retrieved 2021-12-15.
  17. 1 2 Detsky ME, McDonald DR, Baerlocher MO, Tomlinson GA, McCrory DC, Booth CM (September 2006). "Does this patient with headache have a migraine or need neuroimaging?". JAMA. 296 (10): 1274–1283. doi:10.1001/jama.296.10.1274. PMID   16968852.
  18. ↑ "Tension headache - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2021-12-15.
  19. ↑ "Headaches". nhs.uk. 8 January 2018.
  20. ↑ Lionetti E, Francavilla R, Pavone P, Pavone L, Francavilla T, Pulvirenti A, et al. (August 2010). "The neurology of coeliac disease in childhood: what is the evidence? A systematic review and meta-analysis". Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology (Systematic review and meta-analysis). 52 (8): 700–707. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2010.03647.x . PMID   20345955. S2CID   205611320. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  21. ↑ Aziz I, Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DS (September 2015). "The spectrum of noncoeliac gluten sensitivity". Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology (Review). 12 (9): 516–526. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2015.107. PMID   26122473. S2CID   2867448.
  22. 1 2 Cámara-Lemarroy CR, Rodriguez-Gutierrez R, Monreal-Robles R, Marfil-Rivera A (September 2016). "Gastrointestinal disorders associated with migraine: A comprehensive review". World Journal of Gastroenterology (Review). 22 (36): 8149–8160. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i36.8149 . PMC   5037083 . PMID   27688656.
  23. ↑ Hasler WL, Levinthal DJ, Tarbell SE, Adams KA, Li BU, Issenman RM, et al. (June 2019). "Cyclic vomiting syndrome: Pathophysiology, comorbidities, and future research directions". Neurogastroenterology and Motility. 31 (Suppl 2): e13607. doi:10.1111/nmo.13607. PMC   6899706 . PMID   31241816.
  24. ↑ Edlow JA, Panagos PD, Godwin SA, Thomas TL, Decker WW (October 2008). "Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients presenting to the emergency department with acute headache". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 52 (4): 407–436. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2008.07.001. PMID   18809105. S2CID   507361.
  25. 1 2 Greenberg D, Aminoff M, Simon R (6 May 2012). Clinical Neurology 8/E:Chapter 6. Headache & Facial Pain. McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN   978-0-07-175905-2.
  26. ↑ "headache | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
  27. ↑ Dubin AE, Patapoutian A (November 2010). "Nociceptors: the sensors of the pain pathway". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 120 (11): 3760–3772. doi:10.1172/JCI42843. PMC   2964977 . PMID   21041958.
  28. 1 2 Leroux E, Ducros A (July 2008). "Cluster headache". Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. 3 (1): 20. doi: 10.1186/1750-1172-3-20 . PMC   2517059 . PMID   18651939.
  29. ↑ "How a Migraine Happens". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. 26 November 2019. Retrieved 2021-12-18.
  30. 1 2 3 Cutrer FM, Bajwa A, Sabhat M. Post TW (ed.). "Pathophysiology, clinical manifestations and diagnosis of migraine in adults". UpToDate. San Francisco, CA: Wolters Kluwer. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  31. ↑ Goadsby PJ (January 2009). "The vascular theory of migraine--a great story wrecked by the facts". Brain. 132 (Pt 1): 6–7. doi: 10.1093/brain/awn321 . PMID   19098031.
  32. ↑ Charles A (May 2013). "Vasodilation out of the picture as a cause of migraine headache". The Lancet. Neurology. 12 (5): 419–420. doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(13)70051-6. PMID   23578774. S2CID   42240966.
  33. ↑ Amin FM, Asghar MS, Hougaard A, Hansen AE, Larsen VA, de Koning PJ, et al. (May 2013). "Magnetic resonance angiography of intracranial and extracranial arteries in patients with spontaneous migraine without aura: a cross-sectional study". The Lancet. Neurology. 12 (5): 454–461. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70067-X. PMID   23578775. S2CID   25553357.
  34. ↑ Hadjikhani N, Sanchez Del Rio M, Wu O, Schwartz D, Bakker D, Fischl B, et al. (April 2001). "Mechanisms of migraine aura revealed by functional MRI in human visual cortex". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (8): 4687–4692. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.4687H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.071582498 . PMC   31895 . PMID   11287655.
  35. ↑ Buzzi MG, Moskowitz MA (June 2005). "The pathophysiology of migraine: year 2005". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 6 (3): 105–111. doi:10.1007/s10194-005-0165-2. PMC   3451639 . PMID   16355290.
  36. ↑ Denny CJ, Schull MJ (2011). "Chapter 159. Headache and Facial Pain.". In Tintinalli JE, Stapczynski J, Ma O, Cline DM, Cydulka RK, Meckler GD (eds.). Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (7th ed.). New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies. Archived from the original on 31 May 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  37. ↑ "Migraine Without Headache". Neurobalance. Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
  38. ↑ Loder E, Rizzoli P (January 2008). "Tension-type headache". BMJ. 336 (7635): 88–92. doi:10.1136/bmj.39412.705868.ad. PMC   2190284 . PMID   18187725.
  39. ↑ Levin EL (2019). "Cluster Headache". Pain Neurosurgery. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–130. doi:10.1093/med/9780190887674.003.0016. ISBN   978-0-19-088770-4.
  40. ↑ "Using the triptans to treat: Migraine headaches: Comparing effectiveness, safety, and price" (PDF). Consumer Reports Best Buy Drugs: 8. March 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
  41. ↑ Gronseth GS, Greenberg MK (July 1995). "The utility of the electroencephalogram in the evaluation of patients presenting with headache: a review of the literature". Neurology. 45 (7): 1263–1267. doi:10.1212/WNL.45.7.1263. PMID   7617180. S2CID   26022438.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 Smetana GW (2012). "Chapter 9. Headache.". In Henderson MC, Tierney Jr LM, Smetana GW (eds.). The Patient History: An Evidence-Based Approach to Differential Diagnosis. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Archived from the original on 31 May 2015.
  43. 1 2 3 4 Abrams BM (March 2013). "Factors that cause concern". The Medical Clinics of North America. 97 (2): 225–242. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2012.11.002. PMID   23419623.
  44. ↑ American College of Emergency Physicians (January 2002). "Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of patients presenting to the emergency department with acute headache". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 39 (1): 108–122. doi:10.1067/mem.2002.120125. PMID   11782746.
  45. 1 2 3 4 Hainer BL, Matheson EM (May 2013). "Approach to acute headache in adults". American Family Physician. 87 (10): 682–687. PMID   23939446.
  46. ↑ Gilmore B, Michael M (February 2011). "Treatment of acute migraine headache". American Family Physician. 83 (3): 271–280. PMID   21302868 . Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  47. ↑ Smetana GW (October 2000). "The diagnostic value of historical features in primary headache syndromes: a comprehensive review". Archives of Internal Medicine. 160 (18): 2729–2737. doi: 10.1001/archinte.160.18.2729 . PMID   11025782.
  48. ↑ Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (19th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. 8 April 2015. pp. 2594–2595. ISBN   978-0-07-180215-4.
  49. ↑ Hundert AS, Huguet A, McGrath PJ, Stinson JN, Wheaton M (August 2014). "Commercially available mobile phone headache diary apps: a systematic review". JMIR mHealth and uHealth. 2 (3): e36. doi: 10.2196/mhealth.3452 . PMC   4147710 . PMID   25138438.
  50. ↑ Stern SC, Cifu AS, Altkorn D, eds. (2010). "Chapter 18: I Have a Patient with Headache. How Do I Determine the Cause?". Symptom to Diagnosis: An Evidence-Based Guide (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Archived from the original on 31 May 2015.
  51. ↑ Frishberg BM, Rosenberg JH, Matchar DB, McCrory DC, Pietrzak MP, Rozen TD, et al. (April 2000). Evidence-based guidelines in the primary care setting: neuroimaging in patients with nonacute headache. St Paul, MN: US Headache Consortium. pp. 1–25. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.565.1524 .
  52. ↑ American Headache Society (September 2013). "Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question". Choosing Wisely . American Headache Society. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013., which cites
  53. ↑ Strain JD, Strife JL, Kushner DC, Babcock DS, Cohen HL, Gelfand MJ, et al. (June 2000). "Headache. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria". Radiology. 215 (Suppl): 855–60. PMID   11037510.
  54. 1 2 3 4 IHS Classification ICHD-2 (Online ed.). International Headache Society. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013.
  55. ↑ Website The International Headache Classification (ICHD-3 Beta). Retrieved 29. August 2016.
  56. ↑ Olesen et al. 2005, pp. 9–11.
  57. ↑ Brown MR (September 1951). "The classification and treatment of headache". The Medical Clinics of North America. 35 (5): 1485–1493. doi:10.1016/S0025-7125(16)35236-1. PMID   14862569.
  58. ↑ Ad Hoc Committee on Classification of Headache (1962). "Classification of Headache". JAMA. 179 (9): 717–8. doi:10.1001/jama.1962.03050090045008.
  59. ↑ Olesen PJ, Goadsby NM, Ramadan P, Tfelt-Hansen KM, Welch (2005). The Headaches (3 ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
  60. ↑ Levin M, Baskin SM, Bigal ME (2008). Comprehensive Review of Headache Medicine. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-536673-0.
  61. ↑ Linn FH (2010). "Primary thunderclap headache". Headache. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 97. Elsevier. pp. 473–481. doi:10.1016/s0072-9752(10)97042-5. ISBN   978-0-444-52139-2. PMID   20816448.
  62. ↑ Obermann M, Holle D (September 2010). "Hypnic headache". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 10 (9): 1391–1397. doi:10.1586/ern.10.112. PMID   20839413. S2CID   19141493.
  63. 1 2 Levin et al. 2008, p. 60.
  64. ↑ "Headache Information Page | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke". www.ninds.nih.gov. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  65. ↑ Franklin GM (September 2014). "Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: a position paper of the American Academy of Neurology". Neurology. 83 (14): 1277–1284. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000839 . PMID   25267983.
  66. 1 2 Bajwa ZH, Sabahat A. Swanson JW (ed.). Preventive Treatment of Migraine in Adults. UptoDate (Report). San Francisco, CA.: Wolters Kluwer.
  67. ↑ Láinez MJ, García-Casado A, Gascón F (October 2013). "Optimal management of severe nausea and vomiting in migraine: improving patient outcomes". Patient Related Outcome Measures. 4: 61–73. doi: 10.2147/PROM.S31392 . PMC   3798203 . PMID   24143125.
  68. ↑ Boss KW, Przkora R, Kumar S (December 2017). "Sphenopalatine ganglion: block, radiofrequency ablation and neurostimulation - a systematic review". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 18 (1): 118. doi: 10.1186/s10194-017-0826-y . PMC   5745368 . PMID   29285576.
  69. ↑ Silberstein SD (September 2000). "Practice parameter: evidence-based guidelines for migraine headache (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology". Neurology. 55 (6): 754–762. doi: 10.1212/wnl.55.6.754 . PMID   10993991.
  70. 1 2 Taylor R. Swanson JW (ed.). "Tension type headaches in adults: Preventive treatment". UpToDate. San Francisco, CA: Wolters Kluwer. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  71. ↑ Jackson JL, Shimeall W, Sessums L, Dezee KJ, Becher D, Diemer M, et al. (October 2010). "Tricyclic antidepressants and headaches: systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ. 341: c5222. doi:10.1136/bmj.c5222. PMC   2958257 . PMID   20961988.
  72. ↑ Davis MA, Kononowech RW, Rolin SA, Spierings EL (August 2008). "Acupuncture for tension-type headache: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials". The Journal of Pain. 9 (8): 667–677. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2008.03.011 . PMID   18499526.
  73. ↑ Linde K, Allais G, Brinkhaus B, Fei Y, Mehring M, Shin BC, et al. (April 2016). "Acupuncture for the prevention of tension-type headache". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 4 (8): CD007587. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007587.pub2. PMC   4955729 . PMID   27092807.
  74. ↑ Hao XA, Xue CC, Dong L, Zheng Z (April 2013). "Factors associated with conflicting findings on acupuncture for tension-type headache: qualitative and quantitative analyses". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 19 (4): 285–297. doi:10.1089/act.2013.19608. PMID   23075410.
  75. ↑ Melchart D, Streng A, Hoppe A, Brinkhaus B, Becker-Witt C, Hammes M, et al. (December 2005). "The acupuncture randomised trial (ART) for tension-type headache--details of the treatment". Acupuncture in Medicine. 23 (4): 157–165. doi:10.1136/aim.23.4.157. PMID   16430123. S2CID   23437975.
  76. ↑ Melchart D, Streng A, Hoppe A, Brinkhaus B, Witt C, Wagenpfeil S, et al. (August 2005). "Acupuncture in patients with tension-type headache: randomised controlled trial". BMJ. 331 (7513): 376–382. doi:10.1136/bmj.38512.405440.8f. PMC   1184247 . PMID   16055451.
  77. 1 2 Reed KL (January 2013). "Peripheral neuromodulation and headaches: history, clinical approach, and considerations on underlying mechanisms". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 17 (1): 305. doi:10.1007/s11916-012-0305-8. PMC   3548086 . PMID   23274677.
  78. 1 2 3 4 Manzoni GC, Stovner LJ (2010). "Epidemiology of headache". Headache. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 97. pp. 3–22. doi:10.1016/s0072-9752(10)97001-2. ISBN   978-0-444-52139-2. PMID   20816407. [T]he prevalence [of headache within the last year] was on average 46% based on 35 different studies from all over the world, but the variation was immense, between 1% and 87%. The lifetime prevalence was much as expected – 64%, varying between 8% and 96% in 14 studies. For current chronic headache, the average of 10 studies was 3.4%, varying between 1.7% and 7.3%.
  79. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stovner LJ, Andree C (August 2010). "Prevalence of headache in Europe: a review for the Eurolight project". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 11 (4): 289–299. doi:10.1007/s10194-010-0217-0. PMC   2917556 . PMID   20473702. Calculating the mean of all the studies comprising more than 205,000 adult participants, current headache [i.e. headache within the last year] occurred in 53% of adults (61% among women and 45% among men).... The total lifetime prevalence of headache among adults was as expected higher than that of current headache (77%).
  80. ↑ Stovner LJ, Hagen K, Jensen R, Katsarava Z, Lipton R, Scher A, et al. (March 2007). "The global burden of headache: a documentation of headache prevalence and disability worldwide". Cephalalgia. 27 (3): 193–210. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2007.01288.x. PMID   17381554. S2CID   23927368.
  81. ↑ Mattu M, Goyal D, Barrett JW, Broder J, DeAngelis M, Deblieux P, et al. (2007). Emergency medicine: Avoiding the pitfalls and improving the outcomes. Malden, MA: Blackwell / BMJ Books. p. 39. ISBN   978-1-4051-4166-6.
  82. ↑ Kunkel RS (1 August 2010). "Headache". Disease Management Project: Publications. Cleveland Clinic. Archived from the original on 4 May 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
  83. ↑ Rothner AD (June 1995). "The evaluation of headaches in children and adolescents". Seminars in Pediatric Neurology. 2 (2): 109–118. doi:10.1016/s1071-9091(05)80021-x. PMID   9422238.
  84. 1 2 3 4 5 Schultz BE, Macias CG (2011). "130: Headaches in Children". In Tintinalli JE, Stapczynski J, Ma O, Cline DM, Cydulka RK, Meckler GD (eds.). Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016.
  85. ↑ Scagni P, Pagliero R (April 2008). "Headache in an Italian pediatric emergency department". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 9 (2): 83–87. doi:10.1007/s10194-008-0014-1. PMC   3476181 . PMID   18250964.
  86. 1 2 Kan L, Nagelberg J, Maytal J (January 2000). "Headaches in a pediatric emergency department: etiology, imaging, and treatment". Headache. 40 (1): 25–29. doi:10.1046/j.1526-4610.2000.00004.x. PMID   10759899. S2CID   39115552.
  87. ↑ Burton LJ, Quinn B, Pratt-Cheney JL, Pourani M (February 1997). "Headache etiology in a pediatric emergency department". Pediatric Emergency Care. 13 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1097/00006565-199702000-00001. PMID   9061724. S2CID   33965477.
  88. ↑ "What Causes Headaches in Children and Adolescents?". WebMD . Archived from the original on 7 May 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
  89. ↑ Medina LS, Kuntz KM, Pomeroy S (August 2001). "Children with headache suspected of having a brain tumor: a cost-effectiveness analysis of diagnostic strategies". Pediatrics. 108 (2): 255–263. doi:10.1542/peds.108.2.255. PMID   11483785.
  90. ↑ American Headache Society Committee on Headache Education. "Headaches in Children". American Headache Society. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
  91. ↑ Guidetti V, Galli F, Fabrizi P, Giannantoni AS, Napoli L, Bruni O, et al. (September 1998). "Headache and psychiatric comorbidity: clinical aspects and outcome in an 8-year follow-up study". Cephalalgia. 18 (7): 455–462. doi:10.1046/j.1468-2982.1998.1807455.x (inactive 2024-03-16). PMID   9793697.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (link)
  92. ↑ Wang SJ, Fuh JL, Lu SR (August 2009). "Chronic daily headache in adolescents: an 8-year follow-up study". Neurology. 73 (6): 416–422. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181ae2377. PMID   19605771. S2CID   32419124.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.