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Psychophysiology is the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes. While psychophysiology was a general broad field of research in the 1960s and 1970s, it has now become quite specialized, based on methods, topic of studies and scientific traditions. Methods vary as combinations of electrophysiological methods, neuroimaging, and neurochemistry. Topics have branched into subspecializations such as social, sport, cognitive, cardiovascular, clinical and other branches of psychophysiology.
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term "blood pressure" refers to the pressure in a brachial artery, where it is most commonly measured. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure over diastolic pressure in the cardiac cycle. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) above the surrounding atmospheric pressure, or in kilopascals (kPa). The difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures is known as pulse pressure, while the average pressure during a cardiac cycle is known as mean arterial pressure.
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms itself. It is, however, a major risk factor for stroke, coronary artery disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, and dementia. Hypertension is a major cause of premature death worldwide.
The sympathetic nervous system is one of the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the others being the parasympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. The enteric nervous system is sometimes considered part of the autonomic nervous system, and sometimes considered an independent system.
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The diving reflex, also known as the diving response and mammalian diving reflex, is a set of physiological responses to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes, and is found in all air-breathing vertebrates studied to date. It optimizes respiration by preferentially distributing oxygen stores to the heart and brain, enabling submersion for an extended time.
Vasodilation, also known as vasorelaxation, is the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. Blood vessel walls are composed of endothelial tissue and a basal membrane lining the lumen of the vessel, concentric smooth muscle layers on top of endothelial tissue, and an adventitia over the smooth muscle layers. Relaxation of the smooth muscle layer allows the blood vessel to dilate, as it is held in a semi-constricted state by sympathetic nervous system activity. Vasodilation is the opposite of vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels.
Compliance is the ability of a hollow organ (vessel) to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure or the tendency of a hollow organ to resist recoil toward its original dimensions on application of a distending or compressing force. It is the reciprocal of "elastance", hence elastance is a measure of the tendency of a hollow organ to recoil toward its original dimensions upon removal of a distending or compressing force.
Endothelins are peptides with receptors and effects in many body organs. Endothelin constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. The endothelins are normally kept in balance by other mechanisms, but when overexpressed, they contribute to high blood pressure (hypertension), heart disease, and potentially other diseases.
Allostatic load is "the wear and tear on the body" which accumulates as an individual is exposed to repeated or chronic stress. The term was coined by Bruce McEwen and Eliot Stellar in 1993. It represents the physiological consequences of chronic exposure to fluctuating or heightened neural or neuroendocrine response which results from repeated or prolonged chronic stress.
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Pain tolerance is the maximum level of pain that a person is able to tolerate. Pain tolerance is distinct from pain threshold. The perception of pain that goes in to pain tolerance has two major components. First is the biological component—the headache or skin prickling that activates pain receptors. Second is the brain’s perception of pain—how much focus is spent paying attention to or ignoring the pain. The brain’s perception of pain is a response to signals from pain receptors that sensed the pain in the first place.
Central aortic pressure (CAP), central aortic blood pressure (CABP), or central aortic systolic pressure (CASP) is the blood pressure at the root of aorta. Studies have shown the importance of central aortic pressure, especially as compared to peripheral blood pressure, and its implications in assessing the efficacy of antihypertensive treatment with respect to cardiovascular risk factors, kidney disease, and mortality. There is an emerging movement for clinicians to begin using central aortic blood pressure, instead of peripheral blood pressure, as a guide for clinical decisions.
Pathophysiology is a study which explains the function of the body as it relates to diseases and conditions. The pathophysiology of hypertension is an area which attempts to explain mechanistically the causes of hypertension, which is a chronic disease characterized by elevation of blood pressure. Hypertension can be classified by cause as either essential or secondary. About 90–95% of hypertension is essential hypertension. Some authorities define essential hypertension as that which has no known explanation, while others define its cause as being due to overconsumption of sodium and underconsumption of potassium. Secondary hypertension indicates that the hypertension is a result of a specific underlying condition with a well-known mechanism, such as chronic kidney disease, narrowing of the aorta or kidney arteries, or endocrine disorders such as excess aldosterone, cortisol, or catecholamines. Persistent hypertension is a major risk factor for hypertensive heart disease, coronary artery disease, stroke, aortic aneurysm, peripheral artery disease, and chronic kidney disease.
Swimming induced pulmonary edema (SIPE), also known as immersion pulmonary edema, is a life threatening condition that occurs when fluids from the blood leak abnormally from the small vessels of the lung (pulmonary capillaries) into the airspaces (alveoli).
The tail flick test is a test of the pain response in animals, similar to the hot plate test. It is used in basic pain research and to measure the effectiveness of analgesics, by observing the reaction to heat. It was first described by D'Amour and Smith in 1941.
Salt consumption in excess has been extensively studied for its role in human physiology and impact on human health. Chronic, high intake of dietary salt is associated with hypertension and cardiovascular disease, among other adverse health outcomes. Major health and scientific organizations, such as the World Health Organization, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the American Heart Association, have established high salt consumption as a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and stroke.
Social stress is stress that stems from one's relationships with others and from the social environment in general. Based on the appraisal theory of emotion, stress arises when a person evaluates a situation as personally relevant and perceives that they do not have the resources to cope or handle the specific situation.
Human physiology of underwater diving is the physiological influences of the underwater environment on the human diver, and adaptations to operating underwater, both during breath-hold dives and while breathing at ambient pressure from a suitable breathing gas supply. It, therefore, includes the range of physiological effects generally limited to human ambient pressure divers either freediving or using underwater breathing apparatus. Several factors influence the diver, including immersion, exposure to the water, the limitations of breath-hold endurance, variations in ambient pressure, the effects of breathing gases at raised ambient pressure, effects caused by the use of breathing apparatus, and sensory impairment. All of these may affect diver performance and safety.
References
- ↑ Wood DL, Sheps SG, Elveback LR, Schirger A (1984-05-01). "Cold pressor test as a predictor of hypertension". Hypertension. 6 (3): 301–306. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.6.3.301 . PMID 6735451.
- ↑ Harlan WR, Osborne RK, Graybiel A (May 1964). "Prognostic value of the cold pressor test and the basal blood pressure: Based on an eighteen-year follow-up study". The American Journal of Cardiology. 13 (5): 683–687. doi:10.1016/0002-9149(64)90205-X. PMID 14152011.
- ↑ Hines Jr EA, Brown GE (January 1936). "The cold pressor test for measuring the reactibility of the blood pressure: Data concerning 571 normal and hypertensive subjects". American Heart Journal. 11 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/S0002-8703(36)90370-8. ISSN 0002-8703.
- ↑ Keller-Ross ML, Cunningham HA, Carter JR (September 2020). "Impact of age and sex on neural cardiovascular responsiveness to cold pressor test in humans". American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 319 (3): R288–R295. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00045.2020. PMC 7509253 . PMID 32697654.
- ↑ Lowery D, Fillingim RB, Wright RA (March–April 2003). "Sex differences and incentive effects on perceptual and cardiovascular responses to cold pressor pain". Psychosomatic Medicine. 65 (2): 284–291. doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000033127.11561.78. PMID 12651996. S2CID 21147595.
- ↑ Staff (9 Apr 2003). "Higher pain tolerance in males can't be bought". Eurekalert. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
- ↑ Brown JL, Sheffield D, Leary MR, Robinson ME (March–April 2003). "Social support and experimental pain". Psychosomatic Medicine. 65 (2): 276–283. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000030388.62434.46. PMID 12651995. S2CID 21421297.
- ↑ Streff A, Kuehl LK, Michaux G, Anton F (March 2010). "Differential physiological effects during tonic painful hand immersion tests using hot and ice water". European Journal of Pain. 14 (3): 266–272. doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2009.05.011. PMID 19540783. S2CID 16132640.