Blood vessel

Last updated

Blood vessel
Blood vessels (retouched) -en.svg
Diagram blood vessels
Details
System Circulatory system
Identifiers
Latin vas sanguineum
MeSH D001808
TA98 A12.0.00.001
TA2 3895
FMA 63183
Anatomical terminology

Blood vessels are the tubular structures of a circulatory system that transport blood throughout a vertebrate's body. [1] Blood vessels transport blood cells, nutrients, and oxygen to most of the tissues of a body. They also take waste and carbon dioxide away from the tissues. [2] Some tissues such as cartilage, epithelium, and the lens and cornea of the eye are not supplied with blood vessels and are termed avascular.

Contents

There are five types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the arterioles; the capillaries, where the exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues occurs; the venules; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back towards the heart.

The word vascular, is derived from the Latin vas, meaning vessel, and is mostly used in relation to blood vessels.

Etymology

Structure

The arteries and veins have three layers. The middle layer is thicker in the arteries than it is in the veins: [6]

Capillaries consist of a single layer of endothelial cells with a supporting subendothelium consisting of a basement membrane and connective tissue. When blood vessels connect to form a region of diffuse vascular supply, it is called an anastomosis. Anastomoses provide alternative routes for blood to flow through in case of blockages. Veins can have valves that prevent the backflow of the blood that was being pumped against gravity by the surrounding muscles. [8] In humans, arteries do not have valves except for the two 'arteries' that originate from the heart's ventricles. [9]

Early estimates by Danish physiologist August Krogh suggested that the total length of capillaries in human muscles could reach approximately 100,000 km. [10] However, later studies suggest a more conservative figure of 9,000–19,000 km, taking into account updated capillary density and average muscle mass in adults. [11]

Types

There are various kinds of blood vessels: [12]

They are roughly grouped as "arterial" and "venous", determined by whether the blood in it is flowing away from (arterial) or toward (venous) the heart. The term "arterial blood" is nevertheless used to indicate blood high in oxygen, although the pulmonary artery carries "venous blood" and blood flowing in the pulmonary vein is rich in oxygen. This is because they are carrying the blood to and from the lungs, respectively, to be oxygenated.[ citation needed ]

Function

Blood vessels function to transport blood to an animal's body tissues. In general, arteries and arterioles transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body and its organs, and veins and venules transport deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs. Blood vessels also circulate blood throughout the circulatory system. Oxygen (bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells) is the most critical nutrient carried by the blood. In all arteries apart from the pulmonary artery, hemoglobin is highly saturated (95–100%) with oxygen. In all veins, apart from the pulmonary vein, the saturation of hemoglobin is about 75%. [13] [14] (The values are reversed in the pulmonary circulation.) In addition to carrying oxygen, blood also carries hormones, and nutrients to the cells of a body and removes waste products. [15]

Blood vessels do not actively engage in the transport of blood (they have no appreciable peristalsis). Blood is propelled through arteries and arterioles through pressure generated by the heartbeat. [16] Blood vessels also transport red blood cells. Hematocrit tests can be performed to calculate the proportion of red blood cells in the blood. Higher proportions result in conditions such as dehydration or heart disease, while lower proportions could lead to anemia and long-term blood loss. [17]

Permeability of the endothelium is pivotal in the release of nutrients to the tissue. It is also increased in inflammation in response to histamine, [18] prostaglandins [19] and interleukins, [20] which leads to most of the symptoms of inflammation (swelling, redness, warmth and pain).

Constriction

Transmission electron micrograph of a microvessel displaying an erythrocyte (E) within its lumen which is deformed due to vasoconstriction Microvessel.jpg
Transmission electron micrograph of a microvessel displaying an erythrocyte (E) within its lumen which is deformed due to vasoconstriction

Arteries—and veins to a degree—can regulate their inner diameter by contraction of the muscular layer. This changes the blood flow to downstream organs and is determined by the autonomic nervous system. Vasodilation and vasoconstriction are also used antagonistically as methods of thermoregulation. [21]

The size of blood vessels is different for each of them. It ranges from a diameter of about 30–25 millimeters for the aorta [22] to only about 5 micrometers (0,005 mm) for the capillaries. [23] Vasoconstriction is the constriction of blood vessels (narrowing, becoming smaller in cross-sectional area) by contracting the vascular smooth muscle in the vessel walls. It is regulated by vasoconstrictors (agents that cause vasoconstriction). These can include paracrine factors (e.g., prostaglandins), a number of hormones (e.g., vasopressin and angiotensin [24] ) and neurotransmitters (e.g., epinephrine) from the nervous system.

Vasodilation is a similar process mediated by antagonistically acting mediators. The most prominent vasodilator is nitric oxide (termed endothelium-derived relaxing factor for this reason). [25]

Flow

The circulatory system uses the channel of blood vessels to deliver blood to all parts of the body. This is a result of the left and right sides of the heart working together to allow blood to flow continuously to the lungs and other parts of the body. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right side of the heart through two large veins. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters through the pulmonary veins on the left side of the heart into the aorta and then reaches the rest of the body. The capillaries are responsible for allowing the blood to receive oxygen through tiny air sacs in the lungs. This is also the site where carbon dioxide exits the blood. This all occurs in the lungs where blood is oxygenated. [26]

The blood pressure in blood vessels is traditionally expressed in millimetres of mercury (1 mmHg = 133 Pa). In the arterial system, this is usually around 120 mmHg systolic (high pressure wave due to contraction of the heart) and 80 mmHg diastolic (low pressure wave). In contrast, pressures in the venous system are constant and rarely exceed 10 mmHg. [27]

Vascular resistance occurs when the vessels away from the heart oppose the flow of blood. Resistance is an accumulation of three different factors: blood viscosity, blood vessel length and vessel radius. [28] Blood viscosity is the thickness of the blood and its resistance to flow as a result of the different components of the blood. Blood is 92% water by weight and the rest of blood is composed of protein, nutrients, electrolytes, wastes, and dissolved gases. Depending on the health of an individual, the blood viscosity can vary (i.e., anemia causing relatively lower concentrations of protein, high blood pressure an increase in dissolved salts or lipids, etc.). [28]

Vessel length is the total length of the vessel measured as the distance away from the heart. As the total length of the vessel increases, the total resistance as a result of friction will increase. [28] Vessel radius also affects the total resistance as a result of contact with the vessel wall. As the radius of the wall gets smaller, the proportion of the blood making contact with the wall will increase. The greater amount of contact with the wall will increase the total resistance against the blood flow. [29]

Disease

Blood vessels play a huge role in virtually every medical condition. Cancer, for example, cannot progress unless the tumor causes angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels) to supply the malignant cells' metabolic demand. [30] Atherosclerosis represents around 85% of all deaths from cardiovascular diseases due to the buildup of plaque. [31] Coronary artery disease that often follows after atherosclerosis can cause heart attacks or cardiac arrest, resulting in 370,000 worldwide deaths in 2022. [32] In 2019, around 17.9 million people died from cardiovascular diseases. Of these deaths, around 85% of them were due to heart attack and stroke. [33]

Blood vessel permeability is increased in inflammation. Damage, due to trauma or spontaneously, may lead to hemorrhage due to mechanical damage to the vessel endothelium. In contrast, occlusion of the blood vessel by atherosclerotic plaque, an embolised blood clot or a foreign body leads to downstream ischemia (insufficient blood supply) and possibly infarction (necrosis due to lack of blood supply). Vessel occlusion tends to be a positive feedback system; an occluded vessel creates eddies in the normally laminar flow or plug flow blood currents. These eddies create abnormal fluid velocity gradients which push blood elements, such as cholesterol or chylomicron bodies, to the endothelium. These deposit onto the arterial walls which are already partially occluded and build upon the blockage. [34]

The most common disease of the blood vessels is hypertension or high blood pressure. This is caused by an increase in the pressure of the blood flowing through the vessels. Hypertension can lead to heart failure and stroke. Aspirin helps prevent blood clots and can also help limit inflammation. [35] Vasculitis is inflammation of the vessel wall due to autoimmune disease or infection.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aorta</span> Largest artery in the human body

The aorta is the main and largest artery in the human body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart, branching upwards immediately after, and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits at the aortic bifurcation into two smaller arteries. The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artery</span> Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart

An artery is a blood vessel in humans and most other animals that takes oxygenated blood away from the heart in the systemic circulation to one or more parts of the body. Exceptions that carry deoxygenated blood are the pulmonary arteries in the pulmonary circulation that carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation, and the umbilical arteries in the fetal circulation that carry deoxygenated blood to the placenta. It consists of a multi-layered artery wall wrapped into a tube-shaped channel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vein</span> Blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart

Veins are blood vessels in the circulatory system of humans and most other animals that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are those of the pulmonary and fetal circulations which carry oxygenated blood to the heart. In the systemic circulation, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, and veins return deoxygenated blood to the heart, in the deep veins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capillary</span> Smallest type of blood vessel

A capillary is a small blood vessel, from 5 to 10 micrometres in diameter, and is part of the microcirculation system. Capillaries are microvessels and the smallest blood vessels in the body. They are composed of only the tunica intima, consisting of a thin wall of simple squamous endothelial cells. They are the site of the exchange of many substances from the surrounding interstitial fluid, and they convey blood from the smallest branches of the arteries (arterioles) to those of the veins (venules). Other substances which cross capillaries include water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea, glucose, uric acid, lactic acid and creatinine. Lymph capillaries connect with larger lymph vessels to drain lymphatic fluid collected in microcirculation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Circulatory system</span> Organ system for circulating blood in animals

The circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the entire body of a human or other vertebrate. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart and blood vessels. The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circulation or circuit, and a pulmonary circulation or circuit. Some sources use the terms cardiovascular system and vascular system interchangeably with circulatory system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thrombus</span> Blood clot

A thrombus, colloquially called a blood clot, is the final product of the blood coagulation step in hemostasis. There are two components to a thrombus: aggregated platelets and red blood cells that form a plug, and a mesh of cross-linked fibrin protein. The substance making up a thrombus is sometimes called cruor. A thrombus is a healthy response to injury intended to stop and prevent further bleeding, but can be harmful in thrombosis, when a clot obstructs blood flow through a healthy blood vessel in the circulatory system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microcirculation</span> Circulation of the blood in the smallest blood vessels

The microcirculation is the circulation of the blood in the smallest blood vessels, the microvessels of the microvasculature present within organ tissues. The microvessels include terminal arterioles, metarterioles, capillaries, and venules. Arterioles carry oxygenated blood to the capillaries, and blood flows out of the capillaries through venules into veins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vasodilation</span> Widening of blood vessels

Vasodilation, also known as vasorelaxation, is the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. Blood vessel walls are composed of endothelial tissue and a basal membrane lining the lumen of the vessel, concentric smooth muscle layers on top of endothelial tissue, and an adventitia over the smooth muscle layers. Relaxation of the smooth muscle layer allows the blood vessel to dilate, as it is held in a semi-constricted state by sympathetic nervous system activity. Vasodilation is the opposite of vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arteriole</span> Small arteries in the microcirculation

An arteriole is a small-diameter blood vessel in the microcirculation that extends and branches out from an artery and leads to capillaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulmonary artery</span> Artery in pulmonary circulation carrying deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs

A pulmonary artery is an artery in the pulmonary circulation that carries deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs. The largest pulmonary artery is the main pulmonary artery or pulmonary trunk from the heart, and the smallest ones are the arterioles, which lead to the capillaries that surround the pulmonary alveoli.

Vascular resistance is the resistance that must be overcome for blood to flow through the circulatory system. The resistance offered by the systemic circulation is known as the systemic vascular resistance or may sometimes be called by another term total peripheral resistance, while the resistance caused by the pulmonary circulation is known as the pulmonary vascular resistance. Vasoconstriction increases resistance, whereas vasodilation decreases resistance. Blood flow and cardiac output are related to blood pressure and inversely related to vascular resistance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haemodynamic response</span>

In haemodynamics, the body must respond to physical activities, external temperature, and other factors by homeostatically adjusting its blood flow to deliver nutrients such as oxygen and glucose to stressed tissues and allow them to function. Haemodynamic response (HR) allows the rapid delivery of blood to active neuronal tissues. The brain consumes large amounts of energy but does not have a reservoir of stored energy substrates. Since higher processes in the brain occur almost constantly, cerebral blood flow is essential for the maintenance of neurons, astrocytes, and other cells of the brain. This coupling between neuronal activity and blood flow is also referred to as neurovascular coupling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac catheterization</span> Insertion of a catheter into a chamber or vessel of the heart

Cardiac catheterization is the insertion of a catheter into a chamber or vessel of the heart. This is done both for diagnostic and interventional purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunica intima</span> Inner layer of blood vessel

The tunica intima, or intima for short, is the innermost tunica (layer) of an artery or vein. It is made up of one layer of endothelial cells, and is supported by an internal elastic lamina. The endothelial cells are in direct contact with the blood flow.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fetal circulation</span> Circulatory system of fetuses

In humans, the circulatory system is different before and after birth. The fetal circulation is composed of the placenta, umbilical blood vessels encapsulated by the umbilical cord, heart and systemic blood vessels. A major difference between the fetal circulation and postnatal circulation is that the lungs are not used during the fetal stage resulting in the presence of shunts to move oxygenated blood and nutrients from the placenta to the fetal tissue. At birth, the start of breathing and the severance of the umbilical cord prompt various changes that quickly transform fetal circulation into postnatal circulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vascular disease</span> Medical condition

Vascular disease is a class of diseases of the vessels of the circulatory system in the body, including blood vessels – the arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels. Vascular disease is a subgroup of cardiovascular disease. Disorders in this vast network of blood and lymph vessels can cause a range of health problems that can sometimes become severe, and fatal. Coronary heart disease for example, is the leading cause of death for men and women in the United States.

A pulmonary shunt is the passage of deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the left without participation in gas exchange in the pulmonary capillaries. It is a pathological condition that results when the alveoli of parts of the lungs are perfused with blood as normal, but ventilation fails to supply the perfused region. In other words, the ventilation/perfusion ratio of those areas is zero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vascular remodelling in the embryo</span> Biological process

Vascular remodelling is a process which occurs when an immature heart begins contracting, pushing fluid through the early vasculature. The process typically begins at day 22, and continues to the tenth week of human embryogenesis. This first passage of fluid initiates a signal cascade and cell movement based on physical cues including shear stress and circumferential stress, which is necessary for the remodelling of the vascular network, arterial-venous identity, angiogenesis, and the regulation of genes through mechanotransduction. This embryonic process is necessary for the future stability of the mature vascular network.

Biofluid dynamics may be considered as the discipline of biological engineering or biomedical engineering in which the fundamental principles of fluid dynamics are used to explain the mechanisms of biological flows and their interrelationships with physiological processes, in health and in diseases/disorder. It can be considered as the conjuncture of mechanical engineering and biological engineering. It spans from cells to organs, covering diverse aspects of the functionality of systemic physiology, including cardiovascular, respiratory, reproductive, urinary, musculoskeletal and neurological systems etc. Biofluid dynamics and its simulations in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) apply to both internal as well as external flows. Internal flows such as cardiovascular blood flow and respiratory airflow, and external flows such as flying and aquatic locomotion. Biological fluid Dynamics involves the study of the motion of biological fluids. It can be either circulatory system or respiratory systems. Understanding the circulatory system is one of the major areas of research. The respiratory system is very closely linked to the circulatory system and is very complex to study and understand. The study of Biofluid Dynamics is also directed towards finding solutions to some of the human body related diseases and disorders. The usefulness of the subject can also be understood by seeing the use of Biofluid Dynamics in the areas of physiology in order to explain how living things work and about their motions, in developing an understanding of the origins and development of various diseases related to human body and diagnosing them, in finding the cure for the diseases related to cardiovascular and pulmonary systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulmonary arterial hypertension</span> Elevated pressure in the pulmonary circulation limited to the pre-capillary blood vessels

Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH) is a syndrome in which the blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries and pulmonary arterioles is elevated. This pre-capillary pulmonary artery pressure being elevated is essential, and by definition a mean pulmonary artery pressure greater than 20 mmHg as measured by a right heart catheterization is required for the diagnosis. This pre-capillary pulmonary hypertension is confirmed with measuring pulmonary vascular resistance being greater than 3 Woods Units. A pulmonary artery wedge pressure being less than 15 mmHg excludes post-capillary bed pulmonary hypertension. Pulmonary arterial hypertension is a subgroup of pulmonary hypertension and is categorized as World Health Organization as group 1. PAH is further subdivided into various categories based on the cause, including idiopathic, heritable, drug and toxin induced, PAH associated with specific diseases, PAH that is responsive to vasodilators, PAH with venous or capillary involvement, and persistent PAH in the newborn period.

References

  1. ↑ Shea MJ. "Blood Vessels – Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders". Merck Manuals Consumer Version. Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. Archived from the original on April 24, 2015. Retrieved December 22, 2016.
  2. ↑ "How Does Blood Flow Through Your Body". Cleveland Clinic.
  3. ↑ "artery, noun". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Word Origin.
  4. ↑ "Middle English Dictionary Entry of vein and veine". Middle English Compendium.
  5. ↑ "capillary, noun". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Word Origin.
  6. ↑ Taylor AM, Bordoni B (2024), "Histology, Blood Vascular System", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID   31985998 , retrieved April 7, 2024
  7. ↑ Qin G, Wang L, Hua Y, et al. (April 1, 2020). "Comparative morphology of the internal elastic lamina of cerebral and peripheral arteries". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Pathology. 13 (4): 764–770. PMC   7191140 . PMID   32355525.
  8. ↑ D Douketis J (2023). "Overview of the Venous System". MSD Manual.
  9. ↑ The exception is the pulmonary artery and the aorta.
  10. ↑ Krogh A (1922). The anatomy and physiology of capillaries. Gerstein - University of Toronto. New Haven, Yale Univ. Press.
  11. ↑ Poole DC, Kano Y, Koga S, et al. (2021). "August Krogh: Muscle capillary function and oxygen delivery". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology. 253: 110852. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.110852. ISSN   1531-4332. PMC   7867635 . PMID   33242636.
  12. ↑ Tucker WD, Arora Y, Mahajan K (2024), "Anatomy, Blood Vessels", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID   29262226 , retrieved April 17, 2024
  13. ↑ "Central Venous/Mixed Venous Oxygen Saturation". London Health Sciences Centre. London, Ontario, CA. Retrieved August 8, 2021.
  14. ↑ "Hypoxemia (low blood oxygen)". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved August 8, 2021.
  15. ↑ Prisby RD (August 16, 2017). "Mechanical, hormonal and metabolic influences on blood vessels, blood flow and bone". The Journal of Endocrinology. 235 (3): R77–R100. doi:10.1530/JOE-16-0666. PMC   5611884 . PMID   28814440.
  16. ↑ Khan MG (2006). "Anatomy of the Heart and Circulation". Encyclopedia of Heart Disease. Amsterdam: Academic Press. pp. 13–22. ISBN   978-0-08-045481-8.
  17. ↑ "Hematocrit test – Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org.
  18. ↑ Ashina K, Tsubosaka Y, Nakamura T, et al. (2015). "Histamine Induces Vascular Hyperpermeability by Increasing Blood Flow and Endothelial Barrier Disruption In Vivo". PLOS ONE. 10 (7): e0132367. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132367 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4497677 . PMID   26158531.
  19. ↑ Rittchen S, Rohrer K, Platzer W, et al. (December 1, 2020). "Prostaglandin D2 strengthens human endothelial barrier by activation of E-type receptor 4". Biochemical Pharmacology. 182: 114277. doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114277 . ISSN   0006-2952. PMID   33038299.
  20. ↑ Yu H, Huang X, Ma Y, et al. (2013). "Interleukin-8 regulates endothelial permeability by down-regulation of tight junction but not dependent on integrins induced focal adhesions". International Journal of Biological Sciences. 9 (9): 966–979. doi:10.7150/ijbs.6996. ISSN   1449-2288. PMC   3805902 . PMID   24155670.
  21. ↑ Charkoudian N (October 2010). "Mechanisms and modifiers of reflex induced cutaneous vasodilation and vasoconstriction in humans". Journal of Applied Physiology. 109 (4): 1221–1228. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00298.2010. PMC   2963327 . PMID   20448028.
  22. ↑ Erbel R, Eggebrecht H (2006). "Aortic dimensions and the risk of dissection". Heart. 92 (1): 137–142. doi:10.1136/hrt.2004.055111. PMC   1861012 . PMID   16365370. The normal diameter of the abdominal aorta is regarded to be less than 3.0 cm.
  23. ↑ Potter RF, Groom AC (1983). "Capillary diameter and geometry in cardiac and skeletal muscle studied by means of corrosion casts". Microvascular Research. 25 (1): 68–84. doi:10.1016/0026-2862(83)90044-4. ISSN   0026-2862. PMID   6835100.
  24. ↑ Kanaide H, Ichiki T, Nishimura J, et al. (November 28, 2003). "Cellular Mechanism of Vasoconstriction Induced by Angiotensin II". Circulation Research. 93 (11): 1015–1017. doi:10.1161/01.res.0000105920.33926.60. ISSN   0009-7330. PMID   14645130.
  25. ↑ Cooke JP (2000). "The endothelium: a new target for therapy". Vascular Medicine. 5 (1): 49–53. doi:10.1177/1358836X0000500108. ISSN   1358-863X. PMID   10737156.
  26. ↑ Nazario B (September 17, 2021). "How Your Heart Works". WebMD.
  27. ↑ Yeo J, Shahidi F (2021), "Bioactive peptides in health and disease: an overview", Biologically Active Peptides, Elsevier, pp. 1–26, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821389-6.00007-8, ISBN   978-0-12-821389-6 , retrieved October 30, 2024
  28. 1 2 3 Saladin KS (2012). Anatomy & physiology : the unity of form and function (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-131638-5.
  29. ↑ "Factors that Affect Blood Pressure" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 17, 2017. Retrieved October 21, 2018.
  30. ↑ Nishida N, Yano H, Nishida T, et al. (September 2006). "Angiogenesis in cancer". Vascular Health and Risk Management. 2 (3): 213–219. doi: 10.2147/vhrm.2006.2.3.213 . PMC   1993983 . PMID   17326328.
  31. ↑ "World Heart Report 2023" (PDF). World Heart Federation. Geneva, Switzerland: 5. 2023.
  32. ↑ CDC (October 24, 2024). "Heart Disease Facts". Heart Disease. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
  33. ↑ "Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)". World Health Organization. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
  34. ↑ Gidaspow D (1994). Multiphase flow and fluidization : continuum and kinetic theory descriptions. Boston: Academic Press. ISBN   978-0-12-282470-8.
  35. ↑ "Blood Vessel Diseases – Mercy Health System". www.mercyhealth.org. Archived from the original on October 18, 2016.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.