Clostridium

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Clostridium
Clostridium botulinum 01.png
Photomicrograph of Clostridium botulinum bacteria stained with crystal violet
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Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Bacillota
Class: Clostridia
Order: Eubacteriales
Family: Clostridiaceae
Genus: Clostridium
Prazmowski 1880
Species

164 Species
See List of Clostridium species for complete taxonomy.

Contents

Clostridium is a genus of anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria. Species of Clostridium inhabit soils and the intestinal tracts of animals, including humans. [1] This genus includes several significant human pathogens, including the causative agents of botulism and tetanus. It also formerly included an important cause of diarrhea, Clostridioides difficile , which was reclassified into the Clostridioides genus in 2016. [2]

History

In the late 1700s, Germany experienced several outbreaks of an illness connected to eating specific sausages. In 1817, the German neurologist Justinus Kerner detected rod-shaped cells in his investigations into this so-called sausage poisoning. In 1897, the Belgian biology professor Emile van Ermengem published his finding of an endospore-forming organism he isolated from spoiled ham. Biologists classified van Ermengem's discovery along with other known gram-positive spore formers in the genus Bacillus . This classification presented problems, however, because the isolate grew only in anaerobic conditions, but Bacillus grew well in oxygen. [1]

Circa 1880, in the course of studying fermentation and butyric acid synthesis, a scientist surnamed Prazmowski first assigned a binomial name to Clostridium butyricum. [3] The mechanisms of anaerobic respiration were still not yet well elucidated at that time, so taxonomy of anaerobes was still developing. [3]

In 1924, Ida A. Bengtson separated van Ermengem's microorganisms from the Bacillus group and assigned them to the genus Clostridium. By Bengtson's classification scheme, Clostridium contained all of the anaerobic endospore-forming rod-shaped bacteria, except the genus Desulfotomaculum . [1]

Taxonomy

As of October 2022, there are 164 validly published species in Clostridium. [4]

The genus, as traditionally defined, contains many organisms not closely related to its type species. The issue was originally illustrated in full detail by a rRNA phylogeny from Collins 1994, which split the traditional genus (now corresponding to a large slice of Clostridia) into twenty clusters, with cluster I containing the type species and its close relatives. [5] Over the years, this has resulted in many new genera being split out, with the ultimate goal of constraining Clostridium to cluster I. [6]

"Clostridium" cluster XIVa (now Lachnospiraceae) [7] and "Clostridium" cluster IV (now Ruminococcaceae) [7] efficiently ferment plant polysaccharide composing dietary fiber, [8] making them important and abundant taxa in the rumen and the human large intestine. [9] As mentioned before, these clusters are not part of current Clostridium, [5] [10] and use of these terms should be avoided due to ambiguous or inconsistent usage. [7]

Biochemistry

Species of Clostridium are obligate anaerobe and capable of producing endospores. They generally stain gram-positive, but as well as Bacillus , are often described as Gram-variable, because they show an increasing number of gram-negative cells as the culture ages. [11] The normal, reproducing cells of Clostridium, called the vegetative form, are rod-shaped, which gives them their name, from the Greek κλωστήρ or spindle. Clostridium endospores have a distinct bowling pin or bottle shape, distinguishing them from other bacterial endospores, which are usually ovoid in shape.[ citation needed ] The Schaeffer–Fulton stain (0.5% malachite green in water) can be used to distinguish endospores of Bacillus and Clostridium from other microorganisms. [12]

Clostridium can be differentiated from the also endospore forming genus Bacillus by its obligate anaerobic growth, the shape of endospores and the lack of catalase. Species of Desulfotomaculum form similar endospores and can be distinguished by their requirement for sulfur. [1] Glycolysis and fermentation of pyruvic acid by Clostridia yield the end products butyric acid, butanol, acetone, isopropanol, and carbon dioxide. [11]

There is a commercially available polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test kit (Bactotype) for the detection of C. perfringens and other pathogenic bacteria. [13]

Biology and pathogenesis

Clostridium species are readily found inhabiting soils and intestinal tracts. Clostridium species are also a normal inhabitant of the healthy lower reproductive tract of females. [14]

The main species responsible for disease in humans are: [15]

Several more pathogenic species, that were previously described in Clostridium, have been found to belong to other genera. [6]

Treatment

In general, the treatment of clostridial infection is high-dose penicillin G, to which the organism has remained susceptible. [19] Clostridium welchii and Clostridium tetani respond to sulfonamides. [20] Clostridia are also susceptible to tetracyclines, carbapenems (imipenem), metronidazole, vancomycin, and chloramphenicol. [21]

The vegetative cells of clostridia are heat-labile and are killed by short heating at temperatures above 72–75 °C (162–167 °F). The thermal destruction of Clostridium spores requires higher temperatures (above 121.1 °C (250.0 °F), for example in an autoclave) and longer cooking times (20 min, with a few exceptional cases of more than 50 min recorded in the literature). Clostridia and Bacilli are quite radiation-resistant, requiring doses of about 30 kGy, which is a serious obstacle to the development of shelf-stable irradiated foods for general use in the retail market. [22] The addition of lysozyme, nitrate, nitrite and propionic acid salts inhibits clostridia in various foods. [23] [24] [25]

Fructooligosaccharides (fructans) such as inulin, occurring in relatively large amounts in a number of foods such as chicory, garlic, onion, leek, artichoke, and asparagus, have a prebiotic or bifidogenic effect, selectively promoting the growth and metabolism of beneficial bacteria in the colon, such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, while inhibiting harmful ones, such as clostridia, fusobacteria, and Bacteroides . [26]

Use

Related Research Articles

<i>Clostridium botulinum</i> Species of endospore forming bacterium

Clostridium botulinum is a gram-positive, rod-shaped, anaerobic, spore-forming, motile bacterium with the ability to produce botulinum toxin, which is a neurotoxin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cumene process</span> Industrial process

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<i>Clostridium perfringens</i> Species of bacterium

Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive, bacillus (rod-shaped), anaerobic, spore-forming pathogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium. C. perfringens is ever-present in nature and can be found as a normal component of decaying vegetation, marine sediment, the intestinal tract of humans and other vertebrates, insects, and soil. It has the shortest reported generation time of any organism at 6.3 minutes in thioglycolate medium.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clostridia</span> Class of bacteria

The Clostridia are a highly polyphyletic class of Bacillota, including Clostridium and other similar genera. They are distinguished from the Bacilli by lacking aerobic respiration. They are obligate anaerobes and oxygen is toxic to them. Species of the class Clostridia are often but not always Gram-positive and have the ability to form spores. Studies show they are not a monophyletic group, and their relationships are not entirely certain. Currently, most are placed in a single order called Clostridiales, but this is not a natural group and is likely to be redefined in the future.

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Gas gangrene is a bacterial infection that produces tissue gas in gangrene. This deadly form of gangrene usually is caused by Clostridium perfringens bacteria. About 1,000 cases of gas gangrene are reported yearly in the United States.

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<i>Clostridium tetani</i> Common soil bacterium and the causative agent of tetanus

Clostridium tetani is a common soil bacterium and the causative agent of tetanus. Vegetative cells of Clostridium tetani are usually rod-shaped and up to 2.5 μm long, but they become enlarged and tennis racket- or drumstick-shaped when forming spores. C. tetani spores are extremely hardy and can be found globally in soil or in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. If inoculated into a wound, C. tetani can grow and produce a potent toxin, tetanospasmin, which interferes with motor neurons, causing tetanus. The toxin's action can be prevented with tetanus toxoid vaccines, which are often administered to children worldwide.

<i>Clostridium butyricum</i> Species of bacterium

Clostridium butyricum is a strictly anaerobic endospore-forming Gram-positive butyric acid–producing bacillus subsisting by means of fermentation using an intracellularly accumulated amylopectin-like α-polyglucan (granulose) as a substrate. It is uncommonly reported as a human pathogen and is widely used as a probiotic in Japan, Korea, and China. C. butyricum is a soil inhabitant in various parts of the world, has been cultured from the stool of healthy children and adults, and is common in soured milk and cheeses. The connection with dairy products is shown by the name, the butyr- in butyricum reflects the relevance of butyric acid in the bacteria's metabolism and the connection with Latin butyrum and Greek βούτυρον, with word roots pertaining to butter and cheese.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Émile van Ermengem</span>

Émile Pierre-Marie van Ermengem (1851–1932) was a Belgian bacteriologist who, in 1895, isolated Clostridium botulinum, the bacterium that causes botulism, from a piece of ham that had poisoned thirty-four people.

Clostridium novyi (oedematiens) a Gram-positive, endospore- forming, obligate anaerobic bacteria of the class Clostridia. It is ubiquitous, being found in the soil and faeces. It is pathogenic, causing a wide variety of diseases in humans and animals.

Hathewaya histolytica is a species of bacteria found in feces and the soil. It is a motile, gram-positive, aerotolerant anaerobe. H. histolytica is pathogenic in many species, including guinea pigs, mice, and rabbits, and humans. H. histolytica has been shown to cause gas gangrene, often in association with other bacteria species.

Clostridium cadaveris is an enteric, gas-forming, motile, strictly anaerobic gram-positive bacterium of the genus Clostridium. First described by Klein in 1899, it was noted to be the most prominent bacteria during human decomposition; historically it was described as "putrefying flora".

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References

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  2. ↑ Dieterle, Michael G.; Rao, Krishna; Young, Vincent B. (2019). "Novel therapies and preventative strategies for primary and recurrent Clostridium difficile infections". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1435 (1): 110–138. Bibcode:2019NYASA1435..110D. doi:10.1111/nyas.13958. ISSN   1749-6632. PMC   6312459 . PMID   30238983.
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  9. ↑ Lopetuso LR, Scaldaferri F, Petito V, Gasbarrini A (August 2013). "Commensal Clostridia: leading players in the maintenance of gut homeostasis". Gut Pathogens. 5 (1): 23. doi: 10.1186/1757-4749-5-23 . PMC   3751348 . PMID   23941657.
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  15. ↑ Wells CL, Wilkins TD, Baron S (1996). "Clostridia: Sporeforming Anaerobic Bacilli". In Baron S, et al. (eds.). Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ. of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN   978-0-9631172-1-2. PMID   21413315.
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  18. ↑ Meites E, Zane S, Gould C (September 2010). "Fatal Clostridium sordellii infections after medical abortions". The New England Journal of Medicine. 363 (14): 1382–3. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1001014 . PMID   20879895.
  19. ↑ Leikin JB, Paloucek FP, eds. (2008), "Clostridium perfringens Poisoning", Poisoning and Toxicology Handbook (4th ed.), Informa, pp. 892–893, ISBN   978-1-4200-4479-9
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  23. ↑ Burkhalter G, Steffen C, Puhan Z (2007), "Cheese, Processed Cheese, and Whey", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–11, doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_163, ISBN   978-3527306732
  24. ↑ Honikel KO (2007), "Meat and Meat Products", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–17, doi:10.1002/14356007.e16_e02.pub2, ISBN   978-3527306732
  25. ↑ Samel Ul, Kohler W, Gamer AO, Keuser U (2007), "Propionic Acid and Derivatives", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–18, doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_223, ISBN   978-3527306732
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  30. ↑ Saint-Amans S, Perlot P, Goma G, Soucaille P (August 1994). "High production of 1,3-propanediol from gycerol by clostridium butyricum VPI 3266 in a simply controlled fed-batch system". Biotechnology Letters. 16 (8): 831–836. doi:10.1007/BF00133962. S2CID   2896050.
  31. ↑ Mengesha A, Dubois L, Paesmans K, Wouters B, Lambin P, Theys J (2009). "Clostridia in Anti-tumor Therapy". In Brüggemann H, Gottschalk G (eds.). Clostridia: Molecular Biology in the Post-genomic Era . Caister Academic Press. ISBN   978-1-904455-38-7.
  32. ↑ Chou CH, Han CL, Chang JJ, Lay JJ (October 2011). "Co-culture of Clostridium beijerinckii L9, Clostridium butyricum M1 and Bacillus thermoamylovorans B5 for converting yeast waste into hydrogen". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 36 (21): 13972–13983. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.03.067.
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