Listeria

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Listeria
Listeria monocytogenes 01.jpg
micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes bacterium in tissue
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Bacillota
Class: Bacilli
Order: Caryophanales
Family: Listeriaceae
Genus: Listeria
Pirie 1940
Species

L. aquatica
L. booriae
L. cornellensis
L. costaricensis
L. farberi
L. fleischmannii
L. floridensis
L. goaensis
L. grandensis
L. grayi
L. ilorinensis
L. immobilis
L. innocua
L. ivanovii
L. marthii
L. monocytogenes
L. newyorkensis
L. riparia
L. rocourtiae
L. rustica
L. seeligeri
L. swaminathanii
L. thailandensis
L. valentina
L. weihenstephanensis
L. welshimeri

Contents

Listeria grown on agar medium Listeria monocytogenes grown on Listeria Selective Agar.jpg
Listeria grown on agar medium
TEM micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes Listeria monocytogenes PHIL 2287 lores.jpg
TEM micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria is a genus of bacteria that acts as an intracellular parasite in mammals. As of 2024, 28 species have been identified. [1] [2] [3] The genus is named in honour of the British pioneer of sterile surgery Joseph Lister. Listeria species are Gram-positive, rod-shaped, and facultatively anaerobic, and do not produce endospores. [4]

The major human pathogen in the genus is L. monocytogenes . Although L. monocytogenes has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in a refrigerator temperature of 4 °C (39.2 °F) up to the human body temperature of 37 °C (98.6 °F). [5] It is the usual cause of the relatively rare bacterial disease listeriosis, an infection caused by eating food contaminated with the bacteria. The overt form of the disease has a case-fatality rate of around 20–30%. Listeriosis can cause serious illness in pregnant women, newborns, adults with weakened immune systems and the elderly, and may cause gastroenteritis in others who have been severely infected. The incubation period can vary from three to 70 days. [6] The two main clinical manifestations are sepsis and meningitis, often complicated by encephalitis, a pathology unusual for bacterial infections.

L. ivanovii is a pathogen of mammals, specifically ruminants, and rarely causes listeriosis in humans. [7]

Bacteria characteristics

In the late 1920s, two groups of researchers independently identified L. monocytogenes from animal outbreaks, naming it Bacterium monocytogenes. [8] [9] They proposed the genus Listerella in honour of surgeon and early antiseptic advocate Joseph Lister, but that name was already in use for a slime mould and a protozoan. Eventually, the genus Listeria was proposed and accepted. The genus Listeria was classified in the family Corynebacteriaceae through the seventh edition (1957) of Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology . 16S rRNA cataloging studies demonstrated that L. monocytogenes is a distinct taxon within the Lactobacillus-Bacillus branch of the bacterial phylogeny [10] constructed by Woese. In 2004 the genus was placed in the newly created family Listeriaceae, of which the only other genus in the family is Brochothrix . [11] [12] The first documented human case of listeriosis was in 1929, described by the Danish physician Aage Nyfeldt. [13]

The genus Listeriaas of 2024 is known to contain 28 species, classified into two groups: sensu stricto and sensu lato. [14] [3] Listeria sensu strictu contains L. monocytogenes alongside nine other closely related species: L. cossartiae, [15] L. farberi, L. immobilis, [15] L. innocua, L. ivanovii, [16] L. marthii, [17] L. seeligeri, L. swaminathanii [18] and L. welshimeri. Listeria sensu lato contains the remaining 18 species: L. aquatica, [19] L. booriae, [20] L. cornellensis, [19] L. costaricensis, [21] L. fleischmannii, [22] L. floridensis, [19] L. goaensis, [23] L. grandensis, [19] L. grayi, L. ilorinensis, [24] L. newyorkensis, [20] L. portnoyi, [15] L. riparia, [19] L. rocourtiae, [25] L. rustica, [15] L. thailandensis, [26] L. valentina [27] and L. weihenstephanensis. [28] Listeria dinitrificans, previously thought to be part of the genus Listeria, was reclassified into the new genus Jonesia . [29]

All species within the genus Listeria are gram-positive, catalase-positive rods and do not produce endospores. Under the microscope, Listeria species appear as small rods, sometimes arranged in short chains. In direct smears, they may be coccoid, and can be mistaken for streptococci. Longer cells may resemble corynebacteria. Flagella are produced at room temperature, but not at 37 °C. Hemolytic activity on blood agar has been used as a marker to distinguish L. monocytogenes from other Listeria species, but it is not a definitive criterion. Further biochemical characterization may be necessary to distinguish between the different species of Listeria.[ citation needed ]

Listeria monocytogenes is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage, plants, and food. [5] Listeria in soil can contaminate vegetables, and animals can be carriers. It has been found in uncooked meats, uncooked vegetables, fruits including cantaloupe [30] and apples, [31] pasteurized or unpasteurized milk and milk products, and processed foods. Pasteurization and sufficient cooking kill Listeria; however, contamination may occur after cooking and before packaging. For example, meat-processing plants producing ready-to-eat foods, such as hot dogs and deli meats, must follow extensive sanitation policies and procedures to prevent Listeria contamination. [32]

Pathogenesis

Listeria is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal foodborne illness. The case fatality rate for those with a severe form of infection may approach 25%. [33] ( Salmonellosis , in comparison, has a mortality rate estimated at less than 1%. [34] ) Although L. monocytogenes has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in temperatures from a refrigerator temperature of 4 °C (39.2 °F) up to the human body temperature of 37 °C (98.6 °F). [5] Listeriosis may manifest as meningitis, and can affect newborns due to its ability to penetrate the endothelial layer of the placenta. [33]

Listeria uses the cellular machinery to move around inside the host cell. It induces directed polymerization of actin by the ActA transmembrane protein, thus pushing the bacterial cell around. [35]

Listeria monocytogenes, for example, encodes virulence genes that are thermoregulated. The expression of virulence factor is optimal at 39 °C, and is controlled by a transcriptional activator, PrfA, whose expression is thermoregulated by the PrfA thermoregulator UTR element. At low temperatures, the PrfA transcript is not translated due to structural elements near the ribosome binding site. As the bacteria infect the host, the temperature of the host denatures the structure and allows translation initiation for the virulence genes.[ citation needed ]

The majority of Listeria bacteria are attacked by the immune system before they are able to cause infection. Those that escape the immune system's initial response, however, spread through intracellular mechanisms, which protects them from circulating immune factors (AMI). [33]

To invade, Listeria induces macrophage phagocytic uptake by displaying D-galactose in their teichoic acids that are then bound by the macrophage's polysaccharides. Other important adhesins are the internalins. [34] Listeria uses internalin A and B to bind to cellular receptors. Internalin A binds to E-cadherin, while internalin B binds to the cell's Met receptors. If both of these receptors have a high enough affinity to Listeria's internalin A and B, then it will be able to invade the cell via an indirect zipper mechanism.[ citation needed ] Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is encapsulated by the host cell's acidic phagolysosome organelle. [5] Listeria, however, escapes the phagolysosome by lysing the vacuole's entire membrane with secreted hemolysin, [36] now characterized as the exotoxin listeriolysin O. [5] The bacteria then replicate inside the host cell's cytoplasm. [33]

Listeria must then navigate to the cell's periphery to spread the infection to other cells. Outside the body, Listeria has flagellar-driven motility, sometimes described as a "tumbling motility". However, at 37 °C, flagella cease to develop and the bacterium instead usurps the host cell's cytoskeleton to move. [33] Inventively, Listeria polymerizes an actin tail or "comet", [36] from actin monomers in the host's cytoplasm [37] with the promotion of virulence factor ActA. [33] The comet forms in a polar manner [38] and aids the bacterial migration to the host cell's outer membrane. Gelsolin, an actin filament severing protein, localizes at the tail of Listeria and accelerates the bacterium's motility. [38] Once at the cell surface, the actin-propelled Listeria pushes against the cell's membrane to form protrusions called filopods [5] or "rockets". The protrusions are guided by the cell's leading edge [39] to contact adjacent cells, which then engulf the Listeria rocket and the process is repeated, perpetuating the infection. [33] Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is never again extracellular: it is an intracellular parasite [36] like S. flexneri, Rickettsia spp., and C. trachomatis. [33]

Epidemiology

Some of the foods most commonly implicated in Listeria contaminations include ready-to-eat salads and seafood, deli meats, soft and semi-soft cheese, and frozen vegetables. [40]

Cold-cut meats were implicated in an outbreak in Canada in 2008 and a widespread one the US in 2024. [41] Improperly handled cantaloupe was implicated in both the outbreak of listeriosis from Jensen Farms in Colorado in 2011, [42] and a similar listeriosis outbreak across eastern Australia in early 2018. [43] [44] 35 people died across these two outbreaks. [42] [45] The Australian company GMI Food Wholesalers was fined A$236,000 for providing L. monocytogenes-contaminated chicken wraps to the airline Virgin Blue in 2011. [46] Caramel apples have also been cited as a source of listerial infections which hospitalized 26 people, of whom five died. [47] [48]

In 2019, the United Kingdom experienced nine cases of the disease, of which six [49] were fatal, in an outbreak caused by contaminated meat (produced by North Country Cooked Meats) in hospital sandwiches. [50] In 2019, two people in Australia died after probably eating smoked salmon and a third fell ill but survived the disease. [51] In September 2019, three deaths and a miscarriage were reported in the Netherlands after the consumption of listeria-infected deli meats produced by Offerman. [52]

Prevention

Preventing listeriosis as a foodborne illness requires effective sanitation of food contact surfaces. [53] Ethanol is an effective topical sanitizer against Listeria. Quaternary ammonium can be used in conjunction with alcohol as a food-contact safe sanitizer with increased duration of the sanitizing action.

Keeping foods in the home refrigerated below 4 °C (39 °F) discourages bacterial growth. Unpasteurized dairy products may pose a risk. [54] Heating of meats (including beef, pork, poultry, and seafood) to a sufficient internal temperature, typically 74 °C (165 °F), will kill the food-borne pathogen. [55]

Treatment

Non-invasive listeriosis: bacteria are retained within the digestive tract. Symptoms are mild, lasting only a few days and requiring only supportive care. Muscle pain and fever can be treated with over-the-counter pain relievers; diarrhea and gastroenteritis can be treated with over-the-counter medications. [56]

Invasive listeriosis: bacteria have spread to the bloodstream and central nervous system. Treatment includes intravenous delivery of high-dose antibiotics and hospital in-patient care of (probably) not less than two weeks stay, depending on the extent of the infection. [56] Ampicillin, penicillin, or amoxicillin are typically administered for invasive listeriosis; gentamicin may be added in cases of patients with compromised immune systems. [57] In cases of allergy to penicillin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, vancomycin, and fluoroquinolones may be used. [57] For effective treatment the antibiotic must penetrate the host cell and bind to penicillin-binding protein 3 (PBP3). Cephalosporins are not effective for treating listeriosis. [57]

In cases of pregnancy, prompt treatment is critical to prevent bacteria from infecting the fetus; antibiotics may be given to pregnant women even in non-invasive listeriosis. [58] Mirena Nikolova, et al., states that applying antibiotics is crucial during the third trimester because cell-mediated immunity is reduced during this time. Pfaff and Tillet say that listeriosis can cause long-term consequences—including meningitis, preterm labor, newborn sepsis, stillbirths—when contracted during pregnancy. Oral therapies in less severe cases may include amoxicillin or erythromycin. [57] Higher doses may be given to pregnant women to ensure penetration of the umbilical cord and placenta. [59] Infected pregnant women may receive ultrasound scans to monitor the health of the fetus.

Asymptomatic patients who have been exposed to Listeria typically are not treated, but are informed of the signs and symptoms of the disease and advised to return for treatment if any develop. [56]

Research

Some Listeria species are opportunistic pathogens: L. monocytogenes is most prevalent in the elderly, pregnant mothers, and patients infected with HIV. With improved healthcare leading to a growing elderly population and extended life expectancies for HIV infected patients, physicians are more likely to encounter this otherwise-rare infection (only seven per 1,000,000 healthy people are infected with virulent Listeria each year). [5] Better understanding the cell biology of Listeria infections, including relevant virulence factors, may lead to better treatments for listeriosis and other intracytoplasmic parasite infections.

In oncology, researchers are investigating the use of Listeria as a cancer vaccine, taking advantage of its "ability to induce potent innate and adaptive immunity" by activating gamma delta T cells. [37] [60]

Researchers have also been investigating the continuous presence of Listeria in food processing plants. The bacteria’s presence has been partially attributed to the formation of biofilms. [61] This increases the likelihood of food contamination and is further complicated by the fact that biofilms are highly resistant to many disinfectants. [62] The detection of these biofilms was made much easier through the use of quantitative techniques such as plate counting and crystalline violet staining. Although the structures and components of these biofilms have been extensively studied, how they are formed at the molecular level remains a subject of contention. This uncertainty surrounding their formation complicates any methods to completely eradicate the biofilms. However, it has been observed that certain antimicrobial agents such as bacteriophages and enzymes have made promising progress in the effort to eradicate the Listeria biofilm. The enzymes specifically have been noted to have the capability to disrupt specific chemical components of the biofilms, degrading them in the process. More research and development is needed to make these biofilm elimination processes more affordable and efficient to be used on a larger scale. In another study, scientists isolated a strain of Lactobacillus plantarum that was able to completely eradicate Listeria from a sample of sauerkraut. [63]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Listeria monocytogenes</i> Species of pathogenic bacteria that causes the infection listeriosis

Listeria monocytogenes is the species of pathogenic bacteria that causes the infection listeriosis. It is a facultative anaerobic bacterium, capable of surviving in the presence or absence of oxygen. It can grow and reproduce inside the host's cells and is one of the most virulent foodborne pathogens. Twenty to thirty percent of foodborne listeriosis infections in high-risk individuals may be fatal. In the European Union, listeriosis continues an upward trend that began in 2008, causing 2,161 confirmed cases and 210 reported deaths in 2014, 16% more than in 2013. In the EU, listeriosis mortality rates also are higher than those of other foodborne pathogens. Responsible for an estimated 1,600 illnesses and 260 deaths in the United States annually, listeriosis ranks third in total number of deaths among foodborne bacterial pathogens, with fatality rates exceeding even Salmonella spp. and Clostridium botulinum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Listeriosis</span> Medical condition

Listeriosis is a bacterial infection most commonly caused by Listeria monocytogenes, although L. ivanovii and L. grayi have been reported in certain cases. Listeriosis can cause severe illness, including severe sepsis, meningitis, or encephalitis, sometimes resulting in lifelong harm and even death. Those at risk of severe illness are the elderly, fetuses, newborns, and those who are immunocompromised. In pregnant women, it may cause stillbirth or spontaneous abortion, and preterm birth is common. Listeriosis may cause mild, self-limiting gastroenteritis and fever in anyone.

<i>Cronobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Cronobacter is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, oxidase-negative, catalase-positive, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Several Cronobacter species are desiccation resistant and persistent in dry products such as powdered infant formula. They are generally motile, reduce nitrate, use citrate, hydrolyze esculin and arginine, and are positive for L-ornithine decarboxylation. Acid is produced from D-glucose, D-sucrose, D-raffinose, D-melibiose, D-cellobiose, D-mannitol, D-mannose, L-rhamnose, L-arabinose, D-trehalose, galacturonate and D-maltose. Cronobacter spp. are also generally positive for acetoin production and negative for the methyl red test, indicating 2,3-butanediol rather than mixed acid fermentation. The type species of the genus Cronobacter is Cronobacter sakazakii comb. nov.

<i>Massilia</i> (bacterium) Genus of bacteria

The genus Massilia is an outdated genus name of bacteria within the family Oxalobacteriaceae. All Massilia species were reclassified in 2023 into one of the following genera: Duganella, Pseudoduganella, Janthinobacterium,Telluria,Rugamonas,Mokoshia, or Zemynaea.

Campylobacter rectus is a species of Campylobacter. It is implicated as a pathogen in chronic periodontitis, which can induce bone loss. This motile bacillus is a Gram negative, facultative anaerobe. C. rectus is associated with hypertension together with Prevotella melaninogenica and Veillonella parvula.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Actin assembly-inducing protein</span>

The Actin assembly-inducing protein (ActA) is a protein encoded and used by Listeria monocytogenes to propel itself through a mammalian host cell. ActA is a bacterial surface protein comprising a membrane-spanning region. In a mammalian cell, the bacterial ActA interacts with the Arp2/3 complex and actin monomers to induce actin polymerization on the bacterial surface generating an actin comet tail. The gene encoding ActA is named actA or prtB.

Paracytophagy is the cellular process whereby a cell engulfs a protrusion which extends from a neighboring cell. This protrusion may contain material which is actively transferred between the cells. The process of paracytophagy was first described as a crucial step during cell-to-cell spread of the intracellular bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, and is also commonly observed in Shigella flexneri. Paracytophagy allows these intracellular pathogens to spread directly from cell to cell, thus escaping immune detection and destruction. Studies of this process have contributed significantly to our understanding of the role of the actin cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells.

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Listeria ivanovii is a species of bacteria in the genus Listeria. The listeria are rod-shaped bacteria, do not produce spores, and become positively stained when subjected to Gram staining. Of the six bacteria species within the genus, L. ivanovii is one of the two pathogenic species. In 1955 Bulgaria, the first known isolation of this species was found from sheep. It behaves like L. monocytogenes, but is found almost exclusively in ruminants. The species is named in honor of Bulgarian microbiologist Ivan Ivanov. This species is facultatively anaerobic, which makes it possible for it to go through fermentation when there is oxygen depletion.

Leuconostoc carnosum is a lactic acid bacterium; its type strain is NCFB 2776. Its genome has been sequenced. Its name derives from the fact that it was first isolated from chill-stored meats. Its significance is that it thrives in anaerobic environments with a temperature around 2 °C, thus has been known to spoil vacuum-packed meat, yet it is not pathogenic and certain strains of L. carnosum are known to produce bactericides known to inhibit or kill Listeria monocytogenes.

Listeria marthii is a species of bacteria. It is a Gram-positive, motile, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming bacillus. It is non-pathogenic, and non-hemolytic. The species was first isolated from Finger Lakes National Forest in New York. It is named after Elmer H. Marth, a researcher of L. monocytogenes, and was first published in 2010. L. marthii was the first new species of Listeria proposed since 1985.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elizabeth O. King</span> American bacteriologist (1912–1966)

Elizabeth Osborne King was an American microbiologist who discovered and described bacteria of medical importance at the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention from the late 1940s through the early 1960s. A 1984 CDC manual dedication referred to King as "internationally known as an authority on a variety of unusual bacteria." The genera Kingella and Elizabethkingia and several species of bacteria are named to honor her for her pioneering work. King died of cancer on April 8, 1966, in Atlanta, where she is interred in Oakland Cemetery.

Listeria seeligeri is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, motile, nonspore-forming, bacillus-shaped species of bacteria. It is not pathogenic. The species was first isolated from plants, soil, and animal feces in Europe, was first proposed in 1983, and is named after Heinz P. R. Seeliger. Seeliger first proposed the species L. ivanovii and L. innocua, and published extensively on members of the genus Listeria.

Listeria grayi is a species of bacteria. It is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, motile, non-spore-forming bacillus. It is non-hemolytic. The species was first proposed in 1966. It is named after M.L. Gray, an early researcher in L. monocytogenes There are two subspecies of L. grayi: L. gray subs. grayi, and L. grayi subsp. murrayi.

Daniel A. Portnoy is a microbiologist, the Edward E. Penhoet Distinguished Chair in Global Public Health and Infectious Diseases, and a professor of biochemistry, Biophysics and Structural Biology in the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and in the Division of Microbiology in the Department of Plant and Microbial Biology at the University of California, Berkeley. He is one of the world's foremost experts on Listeria monocytogenes, the bacterium that causes the severe foodborne illness Listeriosis. He has made seminal contributions to multiple aspects of bacterial pathogenesis, cell biology, innate immunity, and cell mediated immunity using L. monocytogenes as a model system and has helped to push forward the use of attenuated L. monocytogenes as an immunotherapeutic tool in the treatment of cancer.

Parapedobacter is a genus from the family of Sphingobacteriaceae.

Arcicella is a genus of aerobic bacteria from the family of Spirosomaceae.

Listeria innocua is a species of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria. It is motile, facultatively anaerobic, and non-spore-forming. L. innocua was named innocua (innocuous) because, in contrast to Listeria monocytogenes, it does not readily cause disease in mammals. Another Listeria species, L. seeligeri, was named after one of the discoverers of L. innocua.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milk borne diseases</span> Milk born diseases

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References

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