Citrus production

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Major citrus growing regions Hauptanbaugebiete-Zitrusfruchte.svg
Major citrus growing regions
Gathering oranges in Cayo, Belize Belize36.jpg
Gathering oranges in Cayo, Belize

Citrus production encompasses the production of citrus fruit, which are the highest-value fruit crop in terms of international trade. There are two main markets for citrus fruit:

Contents

Oranges account for the majority of citrus production but the industry also sees significant quantities of grapefruits, pomeloes, lemons, and limes.

History

While the origin of citrus fruits cannot be precisely identified, researchers believe they began to appear in Southeast Asia at least 4,000 BC. From there, they slowly spread to northern Africa, mainly through migration and trade. During the period of the Roman Empire, demand by higher-ranking members of society, along with increased trade, allowed the fruits to spread to southern Europe. Citrus fruits spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, and were then brought to the Americas by Spanish explorers. Worldwide trade in citrus fruits did not appear until the 20th century, and trade in orange juice developed as late as 1940. [1]

Volume

According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2020 was 144 million metric tons (159 million short tons), with about half of this production as oranges. [2] In the international fruit trade, citrus is the largest in terms of financial value. [3] : 5  According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthful foods. [1] [2] In 2019–20, world production of oranges was estimated to be 76 million metric tons (84 million short tons), led by Brazil, China, India, EU, USA, Mexico, Egypt as the largest producers. [2]

Countries involved

Citrus fruits are produced all over the world; according to the FAO, as of 2016, about 79% of the world's total citrus production was grown in the Northern Hemisphere, with countries of the Mediterranean Basin contributing the largest volumes, while Brazil was the largest citrus producer in the Southern Hemisphere and the world. [4]

In the United States, most orange juice and grapefruit is produced in Florida, while citrus fruits for consumption as fresh fruit are grown mainly in California, Arizona, and Texas. Smaller markets for citrus growth in the United States originate in South Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and the gulf coastal states, including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia, as well as North Carolina. Independent cultivars are found in Kentucky, Virginia, and even Missouri, Southern Illinois, and far Southern Kansas. The farther north the range, the more seasonal the cultivation. [5] Florida produces approximately 100 million boxes annually (each box is 90 lbs). [6]

China could be a major player in the orange juice and processed citrus markets, except for high tariffs on citrus that make domestic sale more profitable. Though citrus originated in southeast Asia, current citrus production is low due to lower-than-average yields, high production and marketing costs, and disease. [7]

Top ten total citrus fruits producers 2007 (tonnes)
World's top producer in each category is given in grey.
CountryGrapefruitLemons and limesOrangesTangerines, etc. [8] OtherTotal
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 72,0001,060,00018,279,3091,271,000-20,682,309
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 547,000745,1002,865,00014,152,0001,308,00019,617,100
Flag of the United States.svg  United States 1,580,000722,0007,357,000328,00030,00010,017,000
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 390,0001,880,0004,160,000355,00066,0006,851,000
Flag of India.svg  India 178,0002,060,0003,900,000-148,0006,286,000
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain 35,000880,0002,691,4002,080,70016,5005,703,600
Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 54,000615,0002,300,000702,00068,0003,739,000
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy 7,000546,5842,293,466702,73230,0003,579,782
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria ----3,325,0003,325,000
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 181,923706,6521,472,454738,7862,5993,102,414
 World5,061,02313,032,38863,906,06426,513,9867,137,084115,650,545
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division[ failed verification ]

Oranges and orange juice

About a third of citrus fruit production goes for processing: more than 80% of this is for orange juice production. Demand for fresh and processed oranges continues to rise in excess of production, especially in developed countries. [9]

The two main juice producers are Florida in the United States and the state of São Paulo in Brazil. Production of orange juice between these two makes up roughly 85% of the world market. Brazil exports 99 percent of its production, while 90 percent of Florida's production is consumed in the United States. [5]

Orange juice is traded internationally in the form of frozen concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used, so that storage and transportation costs are lower. [10]

Citrus canker

Citrus production is often cut short in many areas by outbreaks of bacteria known as Xanthomonas axonopodis, or citrus canker, which cause unsightly lesions on all parts of the plant, affecting tree vitality and early drop of fruit. While not harmful to human consumption, the fruit becomes too unsightly to be sold, and entire orchards are often destroyed to protect the outbreak from spreading. [11]

Citrus canker affects all varieties of citrus trees, and recent outbreaks in Australia, Brazil, and the United States have slowed citrus production in parts of those countries. Citrus leafminer moths are a major concern where citrus canker exists. The openings created by citrus leafminer make the tree highly susceptible to the X. axonopodis bacteria which leads to citrus canker.

Citrus greening disease in Florida

Orange juice prices 1973 - 2022 Citrus greening was first found in 1998 in the US and has cut the Orange tree production in half Orange juice prices.webp
Orange juice prices 1973 - 2022
Citrus greening was first found in 1998 in the US and has cut the Orange tree production in half

Introductory and effects of disease

Huanglongbing (HLB), called citrus greening within the industry, is recognized as the deadliest citrus disease the Florida citrus industry has ever faced. [15] This can be attributed to the economic costs of implementing new care-taking strategies, and overall tree loss creating a loss of revenues. [16] A look at total Florida citrus-growing acreage provides a tangible impression to the hardships citrus greening provides; in 2000 there was 665,529 commercially producing citrus acres, while in 2011 there were 473,086 commercially producing citrus acres in Florida. [17] Every year citrus reports indicate a continued loss of citrus production. Citrus greening is being attributed for a total output impact of −4.51 billion, and a loss of 8,257 jobs within Florida. [16] The disease has now spread throughout the entire state, and affects every Florida citrus grower. [18] The disease is spread through an insect vector, the Asian citrus psyllid. The psyllid was previously introduced into Florida in 1998. Prior to 1998 citrus greening was unknown in the state, thus the psyllids spread was left unchecked. By the time citrus greening had reached Florida psyllid populations were well established throughout the state of Florida. The first positive case of greening disease was in August 2005, when a greening positive citrus tree was discovered in Miami-Dade County. It was at this time the entire Florida citrus industry changed its citriculture practices overnight. Intensive pesticide applications, aggressive removal of citrus greening positive trees, and the complete switch from outdoor to indoor citrus nursery operations transpired. [17]

Symptoms

Negative citrus greening tree vs positive citrus greening tree CitrusGreeningNegativevsPositive.JPG
Negative citrus greening tree vs positive citrus greening tree

Symptoms of citrus greening are numerous, and can be varied in citrus trees. A tree will develop yellow shoots instead of the expected deep green colors. The disease presents itself on the leaves by giving an asymmetrical blotchy-mottle appearance. This is the key diagnosing characteristic of citrus greening. On affected limbs, fruit tend to be lopsided. The fruit will also never ripen and have a sour taste, making them unmarketable for both juice and fresh fruit productions. In later stages of infection the tree will suffer from heavy leaf drop, high percentages of fruit drop, and deep twig die back. A greening positive citrus tree's canopies will be airy due to the defoliation the disease causes. [18] After a tree becomes infected with citrus greening it becomes uneconomical and may die within 2–5 years. [19]

Ecology of spread

Vector control of citrus greening began when the disease was first introduced in 2005. All commercial citrus growers are advised in applying two dormancy pesticide sprays. These broad-spectrum pesticide sprays are applied in winter when adult psyllid populations decline to almost exclusive overwintering adults. With this strategy, significant reductions of populations withhold for up to 6 months. This fact is crucial as it protects the spring flush, which accounts for over 70% of new leaves for the year, from the infectious psyllid attacks. The spring flush typically occurs 3 months past winter. [20] More aggressive citrus grove care-takers may employ a wide host of pesticides to try to keep psyllid populations low year round. These growers may spray pesticides up to seven times a year rotating various pesticides to employ different modes of actions against the psyllid. [21] This is done in an attempt to prevent resistances of psyllids to the various pesticides. The spraying of pesticides is the only method of control for the citrus greening vector, the psyllid. It is impossible to kill all psyllids through pesticides; thus, strategic timing of pesticide sprays is done to try to slow the gradual spread of HLB throughout the citrus grove. Unfortunately, at this time it is inevitable that a commercial citrus grove will reach 100 percent infection rates even with aggressive sprays. [19]

New care-taking strategies

Productivity of a citrus groves can be retained at pre-Huanglongbing levels through a three pronged strategy. Current research is aimed at the goal of giving the greatest yields for the lowest costs. Indeed, these lower costs are necessitated by the increased per acre cost of caretaking brought upon by Huanglongbing infection. Huanglongbing forces the commercial citrus caretaker to spray his/her block of citrus many more times a year than normal, considerably increasing costs. Per pound prices of citrus must continue increasing for citrus to remain profitable due to disease pressure. [20]

Foliar fertilizers are now being sprayed on citrus trees at considerably higher rates than before citrus greening disease. Inspiration for the mixture of foliar nutrients was drawn from a local citrus grower, Maury Boyd. Mr. Boyd was the first to try a strategy of not removing greening positive citrus trees, and instead attempt aggressive nutritional sprays. His grove was as a result the first to remain economical with a high percentage rate of greening disease infection. His spray program is under considerable research by the University of Florida’s IFAS department. Further research is still needed, and being carried out to determine which specific fertilizer compounds, and the quantities used are the most efficient. [20] Soil applied fertilizers appear to hold promise as well. In two-year studies carried out by the University of Florida’s IFAS department a combination of sulfur, zinc, manganese, iron and boron applied three times a year to the base of the tree are promising. The third year of research should be available in 2019.

Vector control of the psyllid, which is the sole means for citrus greening to spread is now done routinely. Before citrus greening disease was introduced, commercial citrus growers did not have to spray pesticides targeting insects. Current research is aimed at pesticide application timing, and pesticide choice for efficacy. [20]

After the introduction of citrus greening disease, all commercial nurseries, where new young trees are purchased, were relocated indoors and a bud wood registration program was enacted. Previously young citrus trees were grown outdoors before disease pressure became an issue. This is to certify that Florida grove owners are able to purchase clean citrus trees for the planting of citrus groves. A greening positive young citrus tree will never reach maturity, even with intensive sprays. [17]

These keystone citriculture practices vector control, soil and foliar nutrition, and certified young trees make up the new best management practices for commercial citrus growers against the citrus greening disease fight. [17] A total management approach appears to provide the best hope of reducing financial impact of this disease. Currently, the best hope for the industry is resistant varieties. The challenge for the commercial producer is to identify low cost strategies that can prolong infected trees until they can be replaced.

Citrus nutrition

Citrus malnutrition

Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are the main macronutrients needed in citrus production, as well as calcium, magnesium and sulfur. [22]

Citrus micronutrients

Citrus micronutrients include boron, copper, iron and managanese. [22]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Citrus</i> Genus of flowering plants

Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the family Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, mandarins, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grapefruit</span> Citrus fruit

The grapefruit is a subtropical citrus tree known for its relatively large, sour to semi-sweet, somewhat bitter fruit. The interior flesh is segmented and varies in color from pale yellow to dark pink/red.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lime (fruit)</span> Citrus fruit

A lime is a citrus fruit, which is typically round, green in color, 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) in diameter, and contains acidic juice vesicles.

<i>Passiflora edulis</i> Species of flowering plant in the passion flower family

Passiflora edulis, commonly known as passion fruit, is a vine species of passion flower native to the region of southern Brazil through Paraguay to northern Argentina. It is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psyllid</span> Family of true bugs

Psyllidae, the jumping plant lice or psyllids, are a family of small plant-feeding insects that tend to be very host-specific, i.e. each plant-louse species only feeds on one plant species (monophagous) or feeds on a few closely related plants (oligophagous). Together with aphids, phylloxerans, scale insects and whiteflies, they form the group called Sternorrhyncha, which is considered to be the most "primitive" group within the true bugs (Hemiptera). They have traditionally been considered a single family, Psyllidae, but recent classifications divide the group into a total of seven families; the present restricted definition still includes more than 70 genera in the Psyllidae. Psyllid fossils have been found from the Early Permian before the flowering plants evolved. The explosive diversification of the flowering plants in the Cretaceous was paralleled by a massive diversification of associated insects, and many of the morphological and metabolic characters that the flowering plants exhibit may have evolved as defenses against herbivorous insects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citrus greening disease</span> Bacterial disease of citrus, bug-borne

Citrus greening disease or yellow dragon disease is a disease of citrus caused by a vector-transmitted pathogen. The causative agents are motile bacteria, Liberibacter spp. The disease is transmitted by the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, and the African citrus psyllid, Trioza erytreae, also known as the two-spotted citrus psyllid. It has no known cure. It has also been shown to be graft-transmissible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citrus canker</span> Species of bacterium

Citrus canker is a disease affecting Citrus species caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas. Infection causes lesions on the leaves, stems, and fruit of citrus trees, including lime, oranges, and grapefruit. While not harmful to humans, canker significantly affects the vitality of citrus trees, causing leaves and fruit to drop prematurely; a fruit infected with canker is safe to eat, but too unsightly to be sold. Citrus canker is mainly a leaf-spotting and rind-blemishing disease, but when conditions are highly favorable, it can cause defoliation, shoot dieback, and fruit drop.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oroblanco</span> Cross between pomelo and grapefruit

The oroblanco, oro blanco, or sweetie is a citrus hybrid, resulting from a cross between an acidless pomelo and a Marsh grapefruit. Its fruit is oblate and mostly seedless, with a thick rind that remains green long after it has already matured. It has a sweet, mild taste, and lacks the bitterness generally associated with grapefruit. It requires less heat to grow than other varieties of grapefruit and are harvestable sooner. Oroblancos grown in moderate climates tend to yield the highest-quality fruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mandarinquat</span> Hybrid Species of fruit and plant

The mandarinquat, also misleadingly called orangequat, is any cross between a mandarin and a kumquat. Mandarinquats are members of the citrofortunella group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Valencia orange</span> Hybrid orange

The Valencia orange is a sweet orange cultivar named after the famed oranges in València, Spain. It was first hybridized by pioneer American agronomist and land developer William Wolfskill in the mid-19th century on his farm in Santa Ana, southern California, United States, North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange (fruit)</span> Citrus fruit

The orange, also called sweet orange to distinguish it from the bitter orange, is the fruit of a tree in the family Rutaceae. Botanically, this is the hybrid Citrus × sinensis, between the pomelo and the mandarin orange. The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced.

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is a viral species of the genus Closterovirus that causes the most economically damaging disease to its namesake plant genus, Citrus. The disease has led to the death of millions of Citrus trees all over the world and has rendered millions of others useless for production. Farmers in Brazil and other South American countries gave it the name "tristeza", meaning sadness in Portuguese and Spanish, referring to the devastation produced by the disease in the 1930s. The virus is transmitted most efficiently by the brown citrus aphid.

<i>Murraya paniculata</i> Species of plant

Murraya paniculata, commonly known as orange jasmine, orange jessamine, china box or mock orange, is a species of shrub or small tree in the family Rutaceae and is native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia. It has smooth bark, pinnate leaves with up to seven egg-shaped to elliptical leaflets, fragrant white or cream-coloured flowers and oval, orange-red berries containing hairy seeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cam sành</span> Citrus fruit and plant

Cam sành or King orange is a citrus hybrid originating in Vietnam.

This article summarizes different crops, what common fungal problems they have, and how fungicide should be used in order to mitigate damage and crop loss. This page also covers how specific fungal infections affect crops present in the United States.

<i>Diaphorina citri</i> Species of true bug

Diaphorina citri, the Asian citrus psyllid, is a sap-sucking, hemipteran bug now in the taxonomic family Psyllidae. It is one of two confirmed vectors of citrus greening disease. It has a wide distribution in southern Asia and has spread to other citrus growing regions.

<i>Liberibacter</i> Species of bacterium

Liberibacter is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria in the Rhizobiaceae family. Detection of the liberibacteria is based on PCR amplification of their 16S rRNA gene with specific primers. Members of the genus are plant pathogens mostly transmitted by psyllids. The genus was originally spelled Liberobacter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citrus black spot</span> Fungal disease that affects citrus fruit

Citrus black spot is a fungal disease caused by Phyllosticta citricarpa(previously known as Guignardia citricarpa). This Ascomycete fungus affects citrus plants throughout subtropical climates, causing a reduction in both fruit quantity and quality.

The Citrus stubborn disease is a plant disease affecting species in the genus Citrus. The causative agent of the agent of the disease is Spiroplasma citri, a Mollicute bacterium species. The bacterium resides in the phloem of the affected plant. Originally discovered in citrus-growing regions of California, S. citri is transmitted by several leafhoppers, including Circulifer tenellus and Scaphytopius nitridus in citrus-growing regions of California. The disease has now spread to Arizona by the same hoppers, and Circulifer haematoceps in the Mediterranean region.

Micro-budding is a grafting technique used in the development of citrus trees. Like traditional grafting, there is a combination the hardy characteristics of a rootstock with the desired fruit of the budded region; however, micro-budding is done at a younger age, and because of apical hormonal dominance, the resulting citrus trees grow faster and bear fruit at an earlier stage than traditional T-budded grafted trees. It was developed in 1997 by Dr. Mani Skaria, a citrus scientist (retired) from the Texas A&M University - Kingsville Citrus Center.

References

  1. 1 2 H. John Webber (1967). History and Development of the Citrus Industry. University of California Division of Agricultural Sciences. Archived from the original on 4 June 2004.
  2. 1 2 3 "Citrus fruit, fresh and processed: Statistical Bulletin" (PDF). UN Food and Agriculture Organization. 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  3. ↑ Palou, Lluís; Smilanick, Joseph L., eds. (2020). Postharvest Pathology of Fresh Horticultural Produce. Boca Raton, FL USA: CRC Press. p. xviii+823. ISBN   978-1-315-20918-0. LCCN   2019023295. OCLC   1104856309. ISBN   9781351805889. ISBN   9781351805896. ISBN   9781138630833. LCCN   2019-23296.
  4. ↑ "Citrus fruit, fresh and processed: Statistical Bulletin" (PDF). UN Food and Agriculture Organization. 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  5. 1 2 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. "USDA – U.S and the World Situation: Citrus" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 June 2012.
  6. ↑ Perez, Marvin (24 March 2015). "Orange Juice Enters Bull Market With Biggest Rally Since '98". Bloomberg News . Retrieved 25 March 2015.
  7. ↑ Cheju Citrus Research Institute, Korea. "Citrus Production in Asia". Asian Studies on the Pacific Coast. Archived from the original on 7 October 2006.
  8. ↑ Includes tangerines, mandarins, and clementines.
  9. ↑ Vange Salem
  10. ↑ Thomas H. Spreen. Projections of World Production and Consumption of Citrus to 2010. Archived from the original on 7 February 2006. Retrieved 6 July 2005.
  11. ↑ Gottwald, T.R, Graham, J.H. and Schubert, J.S. (2002). "Citrus canker: The pathogen and its impact", Archived 30 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Online. Plant Health Progress doi : 10.1094/PHP-2002-0812-01-RV
  12. ↑ "FE983/FE983: Impact of Citrus Greening on Citrus Operations in Florida".
  13. ↑ "Researchers Find Possible Answer to Citrus Greening". 14 February 2021.
  14. ↑ "Asian citrus psyllid - Diaphorina citri Kuwayama".
  15. ↑ Shen, W; Crevallos-Crevallos, J; Nunes da Rocha, U; Arevalo, H; Stansly, P; Roberts, P; H.C. van Bruggen, A (2013). "Relation Between Plant Nutrition, Hormones, Insecticide, Applications, Bacterial Endophytes, and Candidatus Liberibacter ct Values in Citrus Trees Infected with Huanglongbing". Eur J Plant Pathol. 137 (4): 727–742. Bibcode:2013EJPP..137..727S. doi:10.1007/s10658-013-0283-7. S2CID   207125443.
  16. 1 2 Hodges, A; Spreen, T (2012). "Economic Impacts of Citrus Greening (HLB) in Florida, 2006/07-2010/11". IFAS: 1–6.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Hall, D; Richardson, M; El-Desouky, A; Halbert, S (2012). "Asian Citrus Psyllid, Diaphorina Citri, Vector of Citrus Huanglongbing Disease". Entomol. Exp. Appl. (146): 207–223.
  18. 1 2 Gottwald, T; Graca, J; Bassanezi, R (2007). "Citrus huanglongbing: The Pathogen and Its Impact". Plant Health Progress (10): 1094.
  19. 1 2 Croxton, S; Stansly, P (2013). "Metalized Polyethylene Mulch to Repel Asian Citrus Psyllid, Slow Spread of Huanglongbing and Improve Growth of New Citrus Plantings". Pest Manag Sci. 70 (2): 318–323. doi:10.1002/ps.3566. PMID   23616306.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Stansly, P; Arevalo, H; Qureshi, J; Jones, M; Hendricks, K; Roberts, P; Roka, F (2013). "Vector control and foliar nutrition to maintain economic sustainability of bearing citrus in Florida groves affected by huanglongbing". Pest Manag Sci. 70 (3): 415–426. doi:10.1002/ps.3577. PMID   23666807.
  21. ↑ Tiwari, S; Mann, R; Rogers, M; Stelinski, L (2011). "Insecticide Resistance in Field Populations of Asian Citrus Psyllid in Florida". Pest Manag Sci. 67 (10): 1258–1268. doi:10.1002/ps.2181. PMID   21538798.
  22. 1 2 3 Citrus Plantmaster. Oslo, Norway: Yara. 2015. pp. 30–60.
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