Switzerland's energy relies mainly on petroleum, nuclear, hydroelectric, and natural gas, with approximately 70% of its consumption imported, primarily from non-renewable sources. Launched in 2011, the 2050 Energy Strategy aims to shift towards sustainable energy practices, achieving climate neutrality and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.[3]
Energy consumption per capita in Switzerland has shown a steady decline over the years. Despite a notable population increase of 28.7% between 1990 and 2020, energy consumption decreased by 5.9% during this period. The majority of energy consumed in Switzerland is derived from petroleum and motor fuels, accounting for 43% of the total, followed by electricity at 26%, and gas at 15%. Private households and transport sectors utilize the most energy, each contributing one third, while manufacturing and services sectors each account for just under one fifth of the energy consumption.[4]
Development of carbon dioxide emissions
After the Fukushima Daiichi accident in March 2011, Switzerland took significant steps regarding its nuclear energy policy. The Federal Council suspended pending procedures for new nuclear power plant licenses, and in the same year, both the Federal Council and Parliament decided to phase out nuclear energy gradually. This decision laid the groundwork for the 2050 Energy Strategy, which involves decommissioning Switzerland's five nuclear power plants as they reach the end of their operational lives, with no plans for new replacements.[5] The country plans to phase out nuclear power plants by 2044.[6]
In 2017, the Swiss public voted in favor of the revised Energy Act, marking the initial implementation of the 2050 Energy Strategy. Subsequently, in June 2023, the Swiss public voted in favor of the Federal Act on Climate Protection Goals, Innovation, and Strengthening Energy Security (Climate and Innovation Act). This legislation establishes a framework for Swiss climate policy, setting interim targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.[7]
The Mantelerlass, passed by the Swiss parliament on September 29, 2023, aims to accelerate renewable energy development. It sets a target of 35 TWh/year from new green technologies by 2035, compared to around 6 TWh/year in 2022. This would cover about half of Switzerland's expected electricity demand in 2035, with the rest to be met by hydroelectric power and imports.[8]
The energy economy in Switzerland developed similarly to the rest of Europe, but with some delay until 1850. There are three different periods. An agrarian society until the mid-nineteenth century, Switzerland's small scale energy economy was based on wood and biomass (plants feeding the animal and human labour), which was in general renewable energy. Also used were wind power and hydraulic power, and, from the eighteenth century, indigenous coal.
The industrial society, from 1860 to 1950, had to import coal as it was the main source of energy but not readily available as a natural resource. Another important source of energy was water power at low or high pressure. The current consumer society, developed using mostly oil, natural gas, water power (turbines) to a lesser extent, and later nuclear energy. The oil crisis and pollution of the environment prompted the increased use of renewable energy. It is notable that 100% of the Swiss railway network is electrified. The high proportion of energy generated through hydroelectric power and the lack of natural resources (such as coal and oil) help to explain why such a situation is strategically beneficial in Switzerland.
In 2017, Swiss voters accepted the revised Energy Act, endorsing the implementation of the 2050 Energy Strategy, which principally aims to:[7]
encourage the adoption of renewable energy sources in Switzerland;
diminish reliance on foreign fossil fuels;
lower energy consumption;
enhance energy efficiency measures.
Under the 2050 Energy Strategy, the construction of new nuclear power plants is prohibited.[7]
In 2021, a report suggested that electricity demand could rise by up to 30% by 2050, potentially reaching a 46% increase if accounting for the demand for green hydrogen.[6]
The Swiss electric grid is largely decarbonized; since the 1980s, low-carbon sources (renewables and nuclear) have made up 97% of national electricity generation.[10] Further emission reductions are thus expected as the transport and heating/cooling sectors gradually switch to electricity.[11][12]
Energy types
Primary energy in Switzerland in 2018
Renewable energy in Switzerland
Years in which the last three renewable power levels achieved
Switzerland's commitment to renewable energy is outlined in the 2050 Energy Strategy. As of 2020, renewable energy accounted for 27% of total energy consumption, marking a 10% increase since 1990. While surpassing the EU average of 19%, Switzerland lags behind leaders like Sweden (60%) and Finland (44%). Hydroelectric power dominates, representing over 60% of Swiss energy, while solar power shows significant growth potential, outpacing other 'new' renewables. Notably, renewable energy predominantly powers electricity generation in Switzerland, comprising 80% of its usage.[13]
Hydro power
Based on the estimated mean production level, hydropower still accounted for almost 90% of domestic electricity production at the beginning of the 1970s, but this figure fell to around 60% by 1985 following the commissioning of Switzerland's nuclear power plants, and is now around 56%. Hydropower therefore remains Switzerland's most important domestic source of renewable energy.[14] Hydro energy was meaning to be taken down in 2013 with new laws on energy to be put in place but they were scrapped for a more eco friendly plan.
Hydroelectric companies received support from the state (for instance in the 2010s). Critics pointed out the lack of independence of the political institutions (cantonal and federal), of which several elected members are connected with the hydroelectric industry.[15]
In 2021, Switzerland operated 682 hydroelectric power stations, accounting for 62% of the nation's total electricity production. The country also maintains 220 dams, the highest density globally. Notably, the Grande Dixence dam in the Valais canton holds the record as the world's tallest gravity dam, standing at 285 meters, and supplying power to approximately 500,000 households annually.[4]
In line with the 2050 Energy Strategy, the government aims to increase hydropower output to 38,600 GWh annually by 2050 through plant renovations, expansions, and new constructions. To incentivize hydropower utilization, investment contributions and market premiums will be provided.[16]
Solar energy in Switzerland in 2016 only accounted for 0.04% of total energy production.[17] The cost of solar energy is significantly higher than competing sources in Switzerland such as hydro. As costs of solar come down it is likely to become more market competitive. It is currently subsidised in an attempt to make it more competitive and attractive.
In 2019, Switzerland announced plans of large scale solar auctions,[18] and in 2021 and 2022 installations increased, with 4.7GW of total installed capacity in 2022.
Photovoltaic technology holds promise for future energy supply, with projections indicating that over 40% of electricity demand could be met by photovoltaics by 2050.[19]
In 2022, Switzerland derived 6% of its electricity from solar power.[20]
Wind
In 2022, there were 41 operating wind turbines with 87 MW of installed capacity, producing 146 GWh of electricity annually, accounting for 0.3% of total energy consumption.[21] Wind parks producing at least 20 GWh annually are designated as being of 'national interest'.[22]
There has been a proposal to produce around 600 GWh (< 0.2%) of electricity per annum using wind turbines by 2030.[23] Switzerland's wind power potential is several TWh per year.[24] The 2050 Energy Strategy aims to increase production from wind energy to 4.3 TWh a year, this would generate around 7% of the country's electricity.[21]
Biomass
According to a 2018 IEA Bioenergy report, biomass accounts for 5.5% of Switzerland's total energy consumption and approximately 2.9% of its electricity production.[25]
In 2023, a report from the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research suggests Switzerland could double its biomass energy production, potentially reaching 97 peta joules annually, with 50 PJ sourced from wood combustion. In 2019, wood combustion accounted for 4.3% of the nation's total energy consumption, generating 41 PJ. Despite the advantages of biomass energy, such as its ability to provide peak electricity, concerns persist regarding scarce raw materials, high production costs, and environmental impacts.[26]
The Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE) represents Switzerland in international organizations like the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the OECD. It participates in multilateral negotiations on energy policy and engages in bilateral committees for nuclear safety with neighboring countries like France, Germany, and Italy.[28]
Switzerland has four operational reactors and two that have ceased operations. The operational four are two large (>1,000 MW) and two small (365 MW). In 2020 the reactors produced 24.0 TWh which was 34% of electricity generated.[29]
In 2021, nuclear power contributed 29% to Switzerland's electricity generation, with only four out of the nation's five nuclear power plants operational since 2020. This aligns with the country's 2050 Energy Strategy, which aims for climate neutrality.[4] The country has set a target date of 2044 to phase out nuclear power.[6]
In 2020, Switzerland's per capita electricity consumption stood at 6.45 MWh, notably lower than Nordic countries such as Norway (21 MWh), Finland (13.9 MWh), and Sweden (11.8 MWh). Nevertheless, it exceeds that of neighboring countries like Germany (5.77 MWh), France (6.1 MWh), and Italy (4.58 MWh). Since 2015, Switzerland's energy consumption has been declining.[4]
The Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE), a division of the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy, and Communications (DETEC), is responsible for managing Switzerland's energy supply and usage. It ensures a diverse and sustainable energy supply, maintains safety standards across energy sectors, and promotes efficient electricity and gas markets. Moreover, the SFOE leads initiatives to increase renewable energy usage and decrease CO2 emissions, while also coordinating national energy research efforts.[30]
Switzerland ranks second in the World Energy Council's 2022 Trilemma Index, highlighting its effective management of energy security, energy equity, and environmental sustainability. It is a top performer in environmental sustainability, alongside Sweden and Norway, where low carbon sources represent over 95% of electricity generation.[31]
A report in 2021 states that the majority of the Swiss electricity grid is old and in need of investment. The high voltage system needs to be upgraded from 220 to 380 kilovolt (kV) stations to better connect to neighbouring countries.[6]
Carbon dioxide emissions
A study published in 2009 showed that the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) due to the electricity consumed in Switzerland (total: 5.7 million tonnes) were seven times higher than the emissions of carbon dioxide due to the electricity produced in Switzerland (total: 0.8 million tonnes).[32]
The study also showed that the production in Switzerland (64.6 TWh) was similar to the amount of electricity consumed in the country (63.7 TWh).[32] Overall, Switzerland exported 7.6 TWh and imported 6.8 TWh; but, in terms of emissions of carbon dioxide, Switzerland exported "clean" electricity causing emissions of 0.1 million tonnes of CO2 and imported "dirty" electricity causing emissions of 5 million tonnes of CO2.[32]
The electricity produced in Switzerland generated about 14 grammes of CO2 per kilowatt hour. The electricity consumed in Switzerland generated about 100 grammes of CO2 per kilowatt hour.[33]
A 2022 report highlights Switzerland's notable CO2 emissions, with an average carbon footprint of 14 tonnes per resident annually—markedly higher than the global average of 6 tonnes. The principal sources of these emissions are road transport, accounting for 40% of the total, and air travel, responsible for 10% prior to the pandemic. Despite its sustainability image, Switzerland faces obstacles in waste management, car usage reduction, and air travel limitation.[34]
Carbon tax
In January 2008, Switzerland implemented a carbon tax on all hydrocarbon fuels, unless are used for energy.[clarification needed] Gasoline and diesel fuels are not affected. It is an incentive tax because it is designed to promote the economic use of hydrocarbon fuels.[35] The tax amounts to SFr12 per tonne CO2, the equivalent of SFr0.03 per litre of heating oil (US$0.108 per gallon) and SFr0.025 per m3 of natural gas (US$0.024 per m3).[36] Switzerland prefers to rely on voluntary actions and measures to reduce emissions. The law mandated a CO2 tax if voluntary measures proved to be insufficient.[37] In 2005, the federal government decided that additional measures were needed to meet Kyoto Protocol commitments of an 8% reduction in emissions below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012.[38] In 2007, the CO2 tax was approved by the Swiss Federal Council, coming into effect in 2008.[36] In 2010, the highest tax rate was to be CHF 36 per tonne of CO2 (US$34.20 per tonne CO2).[39]
Companies are allowed to escape the tax by participating in emissions trading where they voluntarily commit to legally binding reduction targets.[40] Emission allowances are given to companies for free, and each year emission allowances equal to the amount of additional CO2 emitted must be surrendered by the company. Companies are allowed to sell or trade excess permits. However, a company that fails to surrender sufficient allowances must pay the tax retroactively for each tonne emitted since the exemption was granted.[38] As of 2009 some 400 companies operated under this program. In 2008 and 2009 the companies returned enough credits to the Swiss government to cover their CO2 emissions. The companies emitted about 2.6million tonnes, well below the limit of 3.1million tonnes.[41] Switzerland issued so many allowances that few emissions permits were traded.[42]
The tax is revenue-neutral because revenues are redistributed to companies and to the Swiss population. For example, if the population bears 60% of the tax burden, it receives 60% of the rebate. Revenues are redistributed to all payers, except those who exempt themselves from the tax through the cap-and-trade program.[39] The revenue is given to companies in proportion to payroll.[43] Tax revenues that were paid by the population are redistributed equally to all residents.[39][43] In June 2009, the Swiss Parliament allocated about one-third of the carbon tax revenue to a 10-year construction initiative. This program promotes building renovations, renewable energies, waste heat reruse, and building engineering.[39]
Tax revenue from 2008 to 2010 were distributed in 2010.[39] In 2008, the tax raised around CHF 220 million (US$209 million) in revenue. As of 16 June 2010, a total of around SFr360 million (US$342 million) had become available for distribution.[43] The 2010 revenue was about SFr630 million (US$598 million). SFr200 million (US$190 million) was to be allocated for the building program, while the remaining SFr430 million (US$409 million) was to be redistributed to the population.[39] IEA commended Switzerland's tax for its design and that tax revenues would be recycled as "sound fiscal practice".[38]
Since 2005, transport fuels in Switzerland have been subjected to the Climate Cent Initiative surcharge—a surcharge of SFr0.015 per liter on gasoline and diesel (US$0.038 per gallon). However, this surcharge was supplemented with a CO2 tax on transport fuels if emissions reductions are not satisfactory. In their 2007 review, IEA recommended that Switzerland implement a CO2 tax on transport fuels or increase the Climate Cent surcharge to better balance the costs of meeting emissions reductions targets across sectors.[44]
Switzerland's energy policy includes measures targeting CO2 emissions, such as the implementation of a CO2 tax in 2008. Furthermore, in 2021, legislation was passed to reinforce the expansion of domestic renewable energies, aiming to enhance the country's supply security.[45]
The country's CO2 tax on fossil fuels for stationary sources, initiated in 2008, covers roughly 40% of its greenhouse emissions, mainly affecting the heating and process fuel sectors. The tax, originally CHF 96 per tonne of CO2, was raised to CHF 120 in 2022. To ease economic impacts, two-thirds of this revenue returns to households and businesses, offsetting health insurance and social security costs. Nevertheless, proposals to increase carbon pricing on stationary sources and transport fuels in June 2021 were met with public resistance and ultimately rejected.[46]
Energy in the United Kingdom came mostly from fossil fuels in 2021. Total energy consumption in the United Kingdom was 142.0milliontonnes of oil equivalent in 2019. In 2014, the UK had an energy consumption per capita of 2.78tonnes of oil equivalent compared to a world average of 1.92tonnes of oil equivalent. Demand for electricity in 2023 was 29.6GW on average, supplied through 235TWh of UK-based generation and 24TWh of energy imports.
According to the International Energy Agency, France has historically generated a very low level of carbon dioxide emissions compared to other G7 economies due to its reliance on nuclear energy. Energy in France was generated from five primary sources: nuclear power, natural gas, liquid fuels, renewables and coal. In 2020, nuclear power made up the largest portion of electricity generation, at around 78%. Coal energy is declining and due to cease. Renewables accounted for 19.1% of energy consumption in 2020. France has the largest share of nuclear electricity in the world. The country is also among the world's biggest net exporters of electricity. The country is increasingly investing in renewable energy and has set a target of 32% by 2030.
Denmark has considerable sources of oil and natural gas in the North Sea and ranked as number 32 in the world among net exporters of crude oil in 2008. Denmark expects to be self-sufficient with oil until 2050. However, gas resources are expected to decline, and production may decline below consumption in 2020, making imports necessary. Denmark imports around 12% of its energy.
The energy policy of Australia is subject to the regulatory and fiscal influence of all three levels of government in Australia, although only the State and Federal levels determine policy for primary industries such as coal. Federal policies for energy in Australia continue to support the coal mining and natural gas industries through subsidies for fossil fuel use and production. Australia is the 10th most coal-dependent country in the world. Coal and natural gas, along with oil-based products, are currently the primary sources of Australian energy usage and the coal industry produces over 30% of Australia's total greenhouse gas emissions. In 2018 Australia was the 8th highest emitter of greenhouse gases per capita in the world.
Norway is a large energy producer, and one of the world's largest exporters of oil. Most of the electricity in the country is produced by hydroelectricity. Norway is one of the leading countries in the electrification of its transport sector, with the largest fleet of electric vehicles per capita in the world.
Energy in Mexico describes energy, fuel, and electricity production, consumption and import in Mexico.
Energy in Germany is obtained for the vast majority from fossil sources, accounting for 77.6% of total energy consumption in 2023, followed by renewables at 19.6%, and 0.7% nuclear power. As of 2023, German primary energy consumption amounted to 10,791 Petajoule, making it the ninth largest global primary energy consumer. The total consumption has been steadily declining from its peak of 14,845 Petajoule in 2006. In 2023 Germany's gross electricity production reached 508.1 TWh, down from 569.2 TWh in 2022, and 631.4 TWh in 2013.
Energy in Finland describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Finland. Energy policy of Finland describes the politics of Finland related to energy. Electricity sector in Finland is the main article regarding electricity in Finland.
Electricity production in Belgium reached 87.9 terawatt-hours (TWh) in 2020, with nuclear power (39%), natural gas (30%), and wind (15%) as the primary sources. Additional contributions came from biofuels and waste (7%), solar (6%), and coal (2%). In the same year, the total electricity demand was 80.9 TWh, with consumption predominantly from the industrial sector (50%), followed by commercial (25%), residential (23%), and transport (2%) sectors.
The electricity sector in Switzerland relies mainly on hydroelectricity, since the Alps cover almost two-thirds of the country's land mass, providing many large mountain lakes and artificial reservoirs suited for hydro power. In addition, the water masses drained from the Swiss Alps are intensively used by run-of-the-river hydroelectricity (ROR). With 9,052 kWh per person in 2008, the country's electricity consumption is relatively high and was 22% above the European Union's average.
South Africa has a large energy sector, being the third-largest economy in Africa. The country consumed 227 TWh of electricity in 2018. The vast majority of South Africa's electricity was produced from coal, with the fuel responsible for 88% of production in 2017. South Africa is the 7th largest coal producer in the world. As of July 2018, South Africa had a coal power generation capacity of 39 gigawatts (GW). South Africa is the world's 14th largest emitter of greenhouse gases. South Africa is planning to shift away from coal in the electricity sector and the country produces the most solar and wind energy by terawatt-hours in Africa. The country aims to decommission 34 GW of coal-fired power capacity by 2050. It also aims to build at least 20 GW of renewable power generation capacity by 2030. South Africa aims to generate 77,834 megawatts (MW) of electricity by 2030, with new capacity coming significantly from renewable sources to meet emission reduction targets. Through its goals stated in the Integrated Resource Plan, it announced the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme, which aims to increase renewable power generation through private sector investment.
Energy in Algeria encompasses the production, consumption, and import of energy. As of 2009, the primary energy use in Algeria was 462 TWh, with a per capita consumption of 13 TWh. Algeria is a significant producer and exporter of oil and gas and has been a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) since 1969. It also participates in the OPEC+ agreement, collaborating with non-OPEC oil-producing nations. Historically, the country has relied heavily on fossil fuels, which are heavily subsidized and constitute the majority of its energy consumption. In response to global energy trends, Algeria updated its Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Development Plan in 2015, aiming for significant advancements by 2030. This plan promotes the deployment of large-scale renewable technologies, such as solar photovoltaic systems and onshore wind installations, supported by various incentive measures.
Energy in Sweden is characterized by relatively high per capita production and consumption, and a reliance on imports for fossil fuel supplies.
Climate change has far reaching impacts on the natural environment and people of Finland. Finland was among the top five greenhouse gas emitters in 2001, on a per capita basis. Emissions increased to 58.8 million tonnes in 2016. Finland needs to triple its current cuts to emissions in order to be carbon neutral by 2035. Finland relies on coal and peat for its energy, but plans to phase out coal by 2029. Finland has a target of carbon neutrality by the year 2035 without carbon credits. The policies include nature conservation, more investments in trains, changes in taxation and more sustainable wood burning. After 2035 Finland will be carbon negative, meaning soaking more carbon than emitting.
Ireland is a net energy importer. Ireland's import dependency decreased to 85% in 2014. The cost of all energy imports to Ireland was approximately €5.7 billion, down from €6.5 billion (revised) in 2013 due mainly to falling oil and, to a lesser extent, gas import prices. Consumption of all fuels fell in 2014 with the exception of peat, renewables and non-renewable wastes.
Primary energy use in Slovakia was 194 TWh and 36 TWh per million inhabitants in 2009.
Coal in Europe is a term describing the use of coal as an energy source in Europe, including both thermal coal used for power generation and coking coal used for steel production.
Solar power in Switzerland has demonstrated consistent capacity growth since the early 2010s, influenced by government subsidy mechanisms such as the implementation of the feed-in tariff in 2009 and the enactment of the revised Energy Act in 2018. By the end of 2022, solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity had reached 4.7 GW, a notable increase from the 0.1 GW recorded in 2010. Concurrently, the contribution of solar power to electricity generation also rose, climbing from 0.1% in 2010 to 6.2% in 2022.
Denmark is a leading country in renewable energy production and usage. Renewable energy sources collectively produced 81% of Denmark's electricity generation in 2022, and are expected to provide 100% of national electric power production from 2030. Including energy use in the heating/cooling and transport sectors, Denmark is expected to reach 100% renewable energy in 2050, up from the 34% recorded in 2021.
World energy supply and consumption refers to the global supply of energy resources and its consumption. The system of global energy supply consists of the energy development, refinement, and trade of energy. Energy supplies may exist in various forms such as raw resources or more processed and refined forms of energy. The raw energy resources include for example coal, unprocessed oil & gas, uranium. In comparison, the refined forms of energy include for example refined oil that becomes fuel and electricity. Energy resources may be used in various different ways, depending on the specific resource, and intended end use. Energy production and consumption play a significant role in the global economy. It is needed in industry and global transportation. The total energy supply chain, from production to final consumption, involves many activities that cause a loss of useful energy.
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