Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture

Last updated

One-quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions result from food and agriculture. Global greenhouse gas emissions from food production.png
One-quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions result from food and agriculture.

The amount of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture is significant: The agriculture, forestry and land use sector contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions. [2] Agriculture contributes towards climate change through direct greenhouse gas emissions and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. [3] [4] Emissions of nitrous oxide and methane make up over half of total greenhouse gas emission from agriculture. [5] Animal husbandry is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. [6]

Contents

The agricultural food system is responsible for a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions. [7] [8] In addition to being a significant user of land and consumer of fossil fuel, agriculture contributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions through practices such as rice production and the raising of livestock. [9] The three main causes of the increase in greenhouse gases observed over the past 250 years have been fossil fuels, land use, and agriculture. [10] Farm animal digestive systems can be put into two categories: monogastric and ruminant. Ruminant cattle for beef and dairy rank high in greenhouse-gas emissions; monogastric, or pigs and poultry-related foods, are low. The consumption of the monogastric types may yield less emissions. Monogastric animals have a higher feed-conversion efficiency, and also do not produce as much methane. [7] Furthermore, CO2 is actually re-emitted into the atmosphere by plant and soil respiration in the later stages of crop growth, causing more greenhouse gas emissions. [11] The amount of greenhouse gases produced during the manufacture and use of nitrogen fertilizer is estimated at around 5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. The single most important way to cut emissions from it is to use less fertilizers, while increasing the efficiency of their use. [12]

There are many strategies that can be used to help soften the effects, and the further production of greenhouse gas emissions - this is also referred to as climate-smart agriculture. Some of these strategies include a higher efficiency in livestock farming, which includes management, as well as technology; a more effective process of managing manure; a lower dependence upon fossil-fuels and nonrenewable resources; a variation in the animals' eating and drinking duration, time and location; and a cutback in both the production and consumption of animal-sourced foods. [7] [13] [14] [15] A range of policies may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector for a more sustainable food system. [16] : 816–817 

Emissions by type of greenhouse gas

Agricultural activities emit the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. [17]

Carbon dioxide emissions

Activities such as tilling of fields, planting of crops, and shipment of products cause carbon dioxide emissions. [18] Agriculture-related emissions of carbon dioxide account for around 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. [19] Farm practices such as reducing tillage, decreasing empty land, returning biomass residue of crop to soil, and increasing the use of cover crops can reduce carbon emissions. [20]

Methane emissions

Methane emissions from agriculture, 2019. Methane (CHa) emissions are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide-equivalents Methane-emissions-agriculture (OWID 0666).png
Methane emissions from agriculture, 2019. Methane (CHa) emissions are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide-equivalents

Methane emissions from livestock are the number one contributor to agricultural greenhouse gases globally. Livestock are responsible for 14.5% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. One cow alone will emit 220 pounds of methane per year. [22] While the residence time of methane is much shorter than that of carbon dioxide, it is 28 times more capable of trapping heat. [22] Not only do livestock contribute to harmful emissions, but they also require a lot of land and may overgraze, which leads to unhealthy soil quality and reduced species diversity. [22] A few ways to reduce methane emissions include switching to plant-rich diets with less meat, feeding the cattle more nutritious food, manure management, and composting. [23]

Traditional rice cultivation is the second biggest agricultural methane source after livestock, with a near-term warming impact equivalent to the carbon-dioxide emissions from all aviation. [24] Government involvement in agricultural policy is limited due to high demand for agricultural products like corn, wheat, and milk. [25] The United States Agency for International Development's (USAID) global hunger and food security initiative, the Feed the Future project, is addressing food loss and waste. By addressing food loss and waste, greenhouse gas emission mitigation is also addressed. By only focusing on dairy systems of 20 value chains in 12 countries, food loss and waste could be reduced by 4-10%. [26] These numbers are impactful and would mitigate greenhouse gas emissions while still feeding the population. [26]

Nitrous oxide emissions

Global nitrous oxide budget. Global Nitrous Oxide Budget 2020.png
Global nitrous oxide budget.

Nitrous oxide emission comes from the increased use of synthetic and organic fertilizers. Fertilizers increase crop yield production and allows the crops to grow at a faster rate. Agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide make up 6% of the United States' greenhouse gas emissions; they have increased in concentration by 30% since 1980. [27] While 6% may appear to be a small contribution, nitrous oxide is 300 times more effective at trapping heat per pound than carbon dioxide and has a residence time of around 120 years. [27] Different management practices such as conserving water through drip irrigation, monitoring soil nutrients to avoid overfertilization, and using cover crops in place of fertilizer application may help in reducing nitrous oxide emissions. [28]

Global methane budget. The Global Methane Budget 2008-2017.png
Global methane budget.

Emissions by type of activity

Land use changes

Substantial land-use change contributions to emissions have been made by Latin America, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Pacific Islands. Area of rectangles shows total emissions for that region. 2019 Greenhouse gas emissions per capita by region - variwide bar chart - IPCC AR6 WG3 - Fig SPM.2c.svg
Substantial land-use change contributions to emissions have been made by Latin America, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Pacific Islands. Area of rectangles shows total emissions for that region.
World farm-gate greenhouse gas emissions by activity World Farm-gate Greenhouse Gas Emissions By Activity.svg
World farm-gate greenhouse gas emissions by activity

Agriculture contributes to greenhouse gas increases through land use in four main ways:

Together, these agricultural processes comprise 54% of methane emissions, roughly 80% of nitrous oxide emissions, and virtually all carbon dioxide emissions tied to land use. [30]

Land cover has changed majorly since 1750, as humans have deforested temperate regions. When forests and woodlands are cleared to make room for fields and pastures, the albedo of the affected area increases, which can result in either warming or cooling effects depending on local conditions. [31] Deforestation also affects regional carbon reuptake, which can result in increased concentrations of CO2, the dominant greenhouse gas. [32] Land-clearing methods such as slash and burn compound these effects, as the burning of biomatter directly releases greenhouse gases and particulate matter such as soot into the air. Land clearing can destroy the soil carbon sponge.

Livestock

Livestock farms where methane is emitted from the cattle. Livestock near Walnut Farm - geograph.org.uk - 3240836.jpg
Livestock farms where methane is emitted from the cattle.
Meat from cattle and sheep have the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity. World Emissions Intensity Of Agricultural Commodities (2021).svg
Meat from cattle and sheep have the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.

Livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices are responsible for over 18% [33] of human-made greenhouse gas emissions, including:

Livestock activities also contribute disproportionately to land-use effects, since crops such as corn and alfalfa are cultivated in order to feed the animals.

In 2010, enteric fermentation accounted for 43% of the total greenhouse gas emissions from all agricultural activity in the world. [34] The meat from ruminants has a higher carbon equivalent footprint than other meats or vegetarian sources of protein based on a global meta-analysis of lifecycle assessment studies. [35] Small ruminants such as sheep and goats contribute approximately 475 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent to GHG emissions, which constitutes around 6.5% of world agriculture sector emissions. [36] Methane production by animals, principally ruminants, makes up an estimated 15-20% global production of methane. [37] [38] Research continues on the use of various seaweed species, in particular Asparegopsis armata, as a food additive that helps reduce methane production in ruminants. [39]

Worldwide, livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the Earth. [33] The way livestock is grazed also affects future fertility of the land. Not circulating grazing can lead to unhealthy compacted soils. The expansion of livestock farms affects the habitats of native wildlife and has led to their decline. Reduced intake of meat and dairy products is another effective approach to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Slightly over half of Europeans (51%) surveyed in 2022 support reducing the amount of meat and dairy products people may buy to combat climate change - 40% of Americans and 73% of Chinese respondents felt the same. [40]

The Stockholm Environment Institute has suggested that livestock subsidies be phased out in a just transition. [41]

Fertilizer production

This section is an excerpt from Fertilizer § Contribution to climate change.[ edit ]
The amount of greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide produced during the manufacture and use of nitrogen fertilizer is estimated as around 5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. One third is produced during the production and two thirds during the use of fertilizers. The single most important way to cut emissions from it is to use less fertilizers. According to Dr André Cabrera Serrenho: ""We're incredibly inefficient in our use of fertilisers," "We're using far more than we need". [42] Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by soil bacteria to nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas. [43] Nitrous oxide emissions by humans, most of which are from fertilizer, between 2007 and 2016 have been estimated at 7 million tonnes per year, [44] which is incompatible with limiting global warming to below 2 °C. [45]

Rice production

Research work by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture to measure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice production. NP Rice Emissions18 (5687953086).jpg
Research work by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture to measure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice production.
This section is an excerpt from Rice § Greenhouse gases from rice.[ edit ]
In 2022, greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions. [46] Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from croplands, [47] some 30% of agricultural methane emissions, and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions. [48] Methane is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits the soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. [49] Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw. [50]

Global estimates

Global greenhouse gas emissions attributed to different economic sectors as of 2019. 3/4ths of emissions are directly produced, while 1/4th are produced by electricity and heat production that supports the sector. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector.svg
Global greenhouse gas emissions attributed to different economic sectors as of 2019. 3/4ths of emissions are directly produced, while 1/4th are produced by electricity and heat production that supports the sector.
Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, by region, 1990-2010 Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, by region, 1990-2010.png
Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, by region, 1990-2010

Between 2010 and 2019, agriculture, forestry and land use contributed between 13% and 21% to global greenhouse gas emissions. [2] Nitrous oxide and methane make up over half of total greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. [5]

In 2020, it was estimated that the food system as a whole contributed 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions, and that this figure was on course to increase by 30–40% by 2050 due to population growth and dietary change. [51]

Older estimates

In 2010, agriculture, forestry and land-use change were estimated to contribute 20–25% of global annual emissions. [16] : 383 

Mitigation

Mean greenhouse gas emissions for different food types [52]
Food TypesGreenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2-Ceq per g protein)
Ruminant Meat
62
Recirculating Aquaculture
30
Trawling Fishery
26
Non-recirculating Aquaculture
12
Pork
10
Poultry
10
Dairy
9.1
Non-trawling Fishery
8.6
Eggs
6.8
Starchy Roots
1.7
Wheat
1.2
Maize
1.2
Legumes
0.25

In developed countries

Agriculture is often not included in government emissions reductions plans. [53] For example, the agricultural sector is exempt from the EU emissions trading scheme [54] which covers around 40% of the EU greenhouse gas emissions. [55]

Several mitigation measures for use in developed countries have been proposed: [56]

Research in New Zealand estimated that switching agricultural production towards a healthier diet while reducing greenhouse gas emissions would cost approxiately 1% of the agricultural sector's export revenue, which is an order of magnitude less than the estimated health system savings from a healthier diet. [57]

In developing countries

Agriculture is responsible for over a quarter of total global greenhouse gas emissions. [58] Given that agriculture's share in global gross domestic product (GDP) is about 4%, these figures suggest that agricultural activities produce high levels of greenhouse gases. Innovative agricultural practices and technologies can play a role in climate change mitigation [59] and adaptation. This adaptation and mitigation potential is nowhere more pronounced than in developing countries where agricultural productivity remains low; poverty, vulnerability and food insecurity remain high; and the direct effects of climate change are expected to be especially harsh. Creating the necessary agricultural technologies and harnessing them to enable developing countries to adapt their agricultural systems to changing climate will require innovations in policy and institutions as well. In this context, institutions and policies can play an important role at multiple scales.

State- or NGO-sponsored projects can help farmers be more resilient to climate change, such as irrigation infrastructure that provides a dependable water source as rains become more erratic. [60] [61] Water catchment systems that collect water during the rainy season to be used during dry periods can also be used to mitigate the effects of climate change. [61] Some programs, like the Asociación de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Rural de Occidente (C.D.R.O.), a Guatemalan program funded by the United States' government until 2017, focus on agroforestry and weather monitoring systems to help farmers adapt. The organization provided residents with resources to plant new, more adaptable crops to alongside their typical maize to protect the corn from variable temperatures, frost, etc. C.D.R.O. also set up a weather monitoring system to help predict extreme weather events, and would send residents text messages to warn them about periods of frosts, extreme heat, humidity, or drought. [62] Projects focusing on irrigation, water catchment, agroforestry, and weather monitoring can help Central American residents adapt to climate change.

The Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) [63] was developed in 2010 to evaluate agricultural models and intercompare their ability to predict climate impacts. In sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, South America and East Asia, AgMIP regional research teams (RRTs) are conducting integrated assessments to improve understanding of agricultural impacts of climate change (including biophysical and economic impacts) at national and regional scales. Other AgMIP initiatives include global gridded modeling, data and information technology (IT) tool development, simulation of crop pests and diseases, site-based crop-climate sensitivity studies, and aggregation and scaling.

At the 2019 United Nations Climate Summit, the Global EverGreening Alliance announced an initiative to promote agroforestry and conservation farming. One of its goals is to sequester carbon from the atmosphere. The coalition aims to restore tree cover to a territory of 5.75 million square kilometres, achieve a healthy tree-grass balance on a territory of 6.5 million square kilometres, and increase carbon capture in a territory of 5 million square kilometres.By 2050 the restored land should sequester 20 billion tons of carbon annually. The first phase of the initiative is the "Grand African Savannah Green Up" project. In 2019, millions of families had already implemented these methods, and the average territory covered with trees in the farms in Sahel reached 16%. [64]

Climate-smart agriculture

This section is an excerpt from Climate-smart agriculture.[ edit ]

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) (or climate resilient agriculture) is an integrated approach to managing land to help adapt agricultural methods, livestock and crops to the effects of climate change and, where possible, counteract it by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, while taking into account the growing world population to ensure food security. [65] The emphasis is not simply on carbon farming or sustainable agriculture, but also on increasing agricultural productivity.

CSA has three pillars: increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing or removing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. [66] There are different actions listed to counter the future challenges for crops and plants. For example, with regard to rising temperatures and heat stress, CSA recommends the production of heat tolerant crop varieties, mulching, water management, shade house, boundary trees, carbon sequestration, [67] and appropriate housing and spacing for cattle. [68] CSA seeks to stabilize crop production while mitigating the adverse impacts of climate change while maximizing food security. [69] [70]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of climate change</span> Effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent global warming

The scientific community has been investigating the causes of climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, it came to a consensus, where it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times." This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide, The dominant role in this climate change has been played by the direct emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. Indirect CO2 emissions from land use change, and the emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases play major supporting roles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation is action to limit climate change. This action either reduces emissions of greenhouse gases or removes those gases from the atmosphere. The recent rise in global temperature is mostly due to emissions from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. There are various ways how mitigation can reduce emissions. One important way is to switch to sustainable energy sources. Other ways are to conserve energy and to increase efficiency. It is possible to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This can be done by enlarging forests, restoring wetlands and using other natural and technical processes. The name for these processes is carbon sequestration. Governments and companies have pledged to reduce emissions to prevent dangerous climate change. These pledges are in line with international negotiations to limit warming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental vegetarianism</span> Type of practice of vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism that is motivated by the desire to create a sustainable diet, which avoids the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 15% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions</span> Sources and amounts of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere from human activities

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide, from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2017 were 425±20 GtC from fossil fuels and industry, and 180±60 GtC from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2017, coal 32%, oil 25%, and gas 10%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable food system</span> Balanced growth of nutritional substances and their distribution

A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and creates sustainable environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of sustainable agricultural practices, development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets, and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many or all 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

<i>Livestocks Long Shadow</i> United Nations report

Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options is a United Nations report, released by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations on 29 November 2006, that "aims to assess the full impact of the livestock sector on environmental problems, along with potential technical and policy approaches to mitigation". It stated that livestock accounts for 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, a figure which FAO changed to 14.5% in its 2013 study Tackling climate change through livestock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-carbon diet</span> Diet to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

A low-carbon diet is any diet that results in lower greenhouse gas emissions. Choosing a low carbon diet is one facet of developing sustainable diets which increase the long-term sustainability of humanity. Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating a plant-based diet, and in particular little or no beef and dairy. Low-carbon diets differ around the world in taste, style, and the frequency they are eaten. Asian countries like India and China feature vegetarian and vegan meals as staples in their diets. In contrast, Europe and North America rely on animal products for their Western diets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impacts of animal agriculture</span> Impact of farming animals on the environment

The environmental impacts of animal agriculture vary because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. Despite this, all agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment to some extent. Animal agriculture, in particular meat production, can cause pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, disease, and significant consumption of land, food, and water. Meat is obtained through a variety of methods, including organic farming, free-range farming, intensive livestock production, and subsistence agriculture. The livestock sector also includes wool, egg and dairy production, the livestock used for tillage, and fish farming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon dioxide removal</span> Removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide through human activity

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is a process in which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. This process is also known as carbon removal, greenhouse gas removal or negative emissions. CDR is more and more often integrated into climate policy, as an element of climate change mitigation strategies. Achieving net zero emissions will require first and foremost deep and sustained cuts in emissions, and then—in addition—the use of CDR. In the future, CDR may be able to counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atmospheric methane</span> Methane in Earths atmosphere

Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth's atmosphere. The concentration of atmospheric methane is increasing due to methane emissions, and is causing climate change. Methane is one of the most potent greenhouse gases. Methane's radiative forcing (RF) of climate is direct, and it is the second largest contributor to human-caused climate forcing in the historical period. Methane is a major source of water vapour in the stratosphere through oxidation; and water vapour adds about 15% to methane's radiative forcing effect. The global warming potential (GWP) for methane is about 84 in terms of its impact over a 20-year timeframe. and 28 in terms of its impact over a 100-year timeframe.

The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices. The environmental impact of agriculture varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt sustainable agriculture practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency. Though some pastoralism is environmentally positive, modern animal agriculture practices tend to be more environmentally destructive than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural pollution</span> Type of pollution caused by agriculture

Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of sources, ranging from point source water pollution to more diffuse, landscape-level causes, also known as non-point source pollution and air pollution. Once in the environment these pollutants can have both direct effects in surrounding ecosystems, i.e. killing local wildlife or contaminating drinking water, and downstream effects such as dead zones caused by agricultural runoff is concentrated in large water bodies.

Soil management is the application of operations, practices, and treatments to protect soil and enhance its performance. It includes soil conservation, soil amendment, and optimal soil health. In agriculture, some amount of soil management is needed both in nonorganic and organic types to prevent agricultural land from becoming poorly productive over decades. Organic farming in particular emphasizes optimal soil management, because it uses soil health as the exclusive or nearly exclusive source of its fertilization and pest control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate-friendly gardening</span> Low greenhouse gases gardening

Climate-friendly gardening is a form of gardening that can reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from gardens and encourage the absorption of carbon dioxide by soils and plants in order to aid the reduction of global warming. To be a climate-friendly gardener means considering both what happens in a garden and the materials brought into it as well as the impact they have on land use and climate. It can also include garden features or activities in the garden that help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through processes not directly related to gardening.

Increasing methane emissions are a major contributor to the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, and are responsible for up to one-third of near-term global heating. During 2019, about 60% of methane released globally was from human activities, while natural sources contributed about 40%. Reducing methane emissions by capturing and utilizing the gas can produce simultaneous environmental and economic benefits.

The production of cattle has a significant environmental impact, whether measured in terms of greenhouse gas production, land use, consumption of water, discharge of pollutants, or eutrophication of waterways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate-smart agriculture</span> System for agricultural productivity

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to managing land to help adapt agricultural methods, livestock and crops to the effects of climate change and, where possible, counteract it by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, while taking into account the growing world population to ensure food security. The emphasis is not simply on carbon farming or sustainable agriculture, but also on increasing agricultural productivity.

References

  1. ↑ "Food production is responsible for one-quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions". Our World in Data. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  2. 1 2 Nabuurs, G-J.; Mrabet, R.; Abu Hatab, A.; Bustamante, M.; et al. "Chapter 7: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses (AFOLU)" (PDF). Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. p. 750. doi:10.1017/9781009157926.009..
  3. ↑ Section 4.2: Agriculture's current contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, in: HLPE (June 2012). Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp. 67–69. Archived from the original on 12 December 2014.
  4. ↑ Sarkodie, Samuel A.; Ntiamoah, Evans B.; Li, Dongmei (2019). "Panel heterogeneous distribution analysis of trade and modernized agriculture on CO2 emissions: The role of renewable and fossil fuel energy consumption". Natural Resources Forum. 43 (3): 135–153. doi: 10.1111/1477-8947.12183 . ISSN   1477-8947.
  5. 1 2 FAO (2020). Emissions due to agriculture. Global, regional and country trends 2000–2018 (PDF) (Report). FAOSTAT Analytical Brief Series. Vol. 18. Rome. p. 2. ISSN   2709-0078.
  6. ↑ "How livestock farming affects the environment". www.downtoearth.org.in. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  7. 1 2 3 Friel, Sharon; Dangour, Alan D.; Garnett, Tara; et al. (2009). "Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: food and agriculture". The Lancet. 374 (9706): 2016–2025. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61753-0. PMID   19942280. S2CID   6318195.
  8. ↑ "The Food Gap: The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Production: a 2020 Perspective" (PDF). 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2012.
  9. ↑ Steinfeld H, Gerber P, Wassenaar T, Castel V, Rosales M, de Haan C (2006). Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues and options (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. ISBN   978-92-5-105571-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008.
  10. ↑ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Archived 1 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine (IPCC)
  11. ↑ Sharma, Gagan Deep; Shah, Muhammad Ibrahim; Shahzad, Umer; Jain, Mansi; Chopra, Ritika (1 November 2021). "Exploring the nexus between agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions in BIMSTEC region: The role of renewable energy and human capital as moderators". Journal of Environmental Management. 297: 113316. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113316. ISSN   0301-4797. PMID   34293673.
  12. ↑ "Carbon emissions from fertilizers could be reduced by as much as 80% by 2050". Science Daily. University of Cambridge. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
  13. ↑ Thornton, P.K.; van de Steeg, J.; Notenbaert, A.; Herrero, M. (2009). "The impacts of climate change on livestock and livestock systems in developing countries: A review of what we know and what we need to know". Agricultural Systems. 101 (3): 113–127. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2009.05.002.
  14. ↑ J, Kurukulasuriya, Pradeep H., Rosenthal, Shane. "Climate change and agriculture : a review of impacts and adaptations". World Bank. Retrieved 3 November 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ↑ McMichael, A.J.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.H.; Corvalán, C.F.; et al. (2003). Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses (PDF) (Report). World Health Organization. ISBN   92-4-156248-X.
  16. 1 2 Blanco G., R. Gerlagh, S. Suh, J. Barrett, H.C. de Coninck, C.F. Diaz Morejon, R. Mathur, N. Nakicenovic, A. Ofosu Ahenkora, J. Pan, H. Pathak, J. Rice, R. Richels, S.J. Smith, D.I. Stern, F.L. Toth, and P. Zhou, 2014: Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
  17. ↑ Smith, Laurence G.; Kirk, Guy J. D.; Jones, Philip J.; Williams, Adrian G. (22 October 2019). "The greenhouse gas impacts of converting food production in England and Wales to organic methods". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 4641. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.4641S. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-12622-7. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   6805889 . PMID   31641128.
  18. ↑ "Agricultural Practices Producing and Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions" (PDF).
  19. ↑ US EPA, OAR (8 February 2023). "Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  20. ↑ Food, Ministry of Agriculture and. "Reducing agricultural greenhouse gases - Province of British Columbia". www2.gov.bc.ca. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  21. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (11 May 2020). "CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data.
  22. 1 2 3 Quinton, Amy (27 June 2019). "Cows and climate change".
  23. ↑ "Curbing methane emissions: How five industries can counter a major climate threat | McKinsey". www.mckinsey.com. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  24. ↑ Reed, John (25 June 2020). "Thai rice farmers step up to tackle carbon footprint". Financial Times. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
  25. ↑ Leahy, Sinead; Clark, Harry; Reisinger, Andy (2020). "Challenges and Prospects for Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Pathways Consistent With the Paris Agreement". Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 4. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.00069 . ISSN   2571-581X.
  26. 1 2 Galford, Gillian L.; Peña, Olivia; Sullivan, Amanda K.; Nash, Julie; Gurwick, Noel; Pirolli, Gillian; Richards, Meryl; White, Julianna; Wollenberg, Eva (2020). "Agricultural development addresses food loss and waste while reducing greenhouse gas emissions". Science of the Total Environment. 699: 134318. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.699m4318G. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134318 . PMID   33736198. S2CID   202879416.
  27. 1 2 "The Greenhouse Gas No One's Talking About: Nitrous Oxide on Farms, Explained". Civil Eats. 19 September 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  28. ↑ University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. "Nitrous Oxide Emissions". ucanr.edu. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  29. ↑ Fig. SPM.2c from Working Group III (4 April 2022). Climate Change 2022 / Mitigation of Climate Change / Summary for Policymakers (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 10. ISBN   978-92-9169-160-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2023 – via IPCC.ch. GDP data is for 2019.
  30. ↑ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Emissions Scenarios retrieved 26 June 2007
  31. ↑ "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" (PDF).
  32. ↑ IPCC Technical Summary retrieved 25 June 2007
  33. 1 2 3 Steinfeld H, Gerber P, Wassenaar TD, Castel V, de Haan C (1 January 2006). Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options (PDF). Food & Agriculture Org. ISBN   9789251055717. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008 – via Google Books.,
  34. ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2013) "FAO STATISTICAL YEARBOOK 2013 World Food and Agriculture". See data in Table 49.
  35. ↑ Ripple WJ, Smith P, Haberl H, Montzka SA, McAlpine C, Boucher DH (20 December 2013). "Ruminants, climate change and climate policy". Nature Climate Change. 4 (1): 2–5. Bibcode:2014NatCC...4....2R. doi:10.1038/nclimate2081.
  36. ↑ Giamouri, Elisavet; Zisis, Foivos; Mitsiopoulou, Christina; Christodoulou, Christos; Pappas, Athanasios C.; Simitzis, Panagiotis E.; Kamilaris, Charalampos; Galliou, Fenia; Manios, Thrassyvoulos; Mavrommatis, Alexandros; Tsiplakou, Eleni (24 February 2023). "Sustainable Strategies for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction in Small Ruminants Farming". Sustainability. 15 (5): 4118. doi: 10.3390/su15054118 . ISSN   2071-1050.
  37. ↑ Cicerone RJ, Oremland RS (December 1988). "Biogeochemical aspects of atmospheric methane". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 2 (4): 299–327. Bibcode:1988GBioC...2..299C. doi:10.1029/GB002i004p00299. S2CID   56396847.
  38. ↑ Yavitt JB (1992). "Methane, biogeochemical cycle". Encyclopedia of Earth System Science. London, England: Academic Press. 3: 197–207.
  39. ↑ Hughes, Lesley (2 September 2022). "From designing clothes to refashioning cow burps: Sam's $40 million career switch". The Sydney Morning Herald. pp. 8–11. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
  40. ↑ "2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 2 of 2: Majority of young Europeans say the climate impact of prospective employers is an important factor when job hunting". EIB.org. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
  41. ↑ "just-transition-meat-sector" (PDF).
  42. ↑ "Carbon emissions from fertilizers could be reduced by as much as 80% by 2050". Science Daily. University of Cambridge. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
  43. ↑ "How Fertilizer Is Making Climate Change Worse". BloombergQuint. 10 September 2020. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  44. ↑ Tian, Hanqin; Xu, Rongting; Canadell, Josep G.; Thompson, Rona L.; Winiwarter, Wilfried; Suntharalingam, Parvadha; Davidson, Eric A.; Ciais, Philippe; Jackson, Robert B.; Janssens-Maenhout, Greet; Prather, Michael J. (October 2020). "A comprehensive quantification of global nitrous oxide sources and sinks". Nature. 586 (7828): 248–256. Bibcode:2020Natur.586..248T. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2780-0. hdl: 1871.1/c74d4b68-ecf4-4c6d-890d-a1d0aaef01c9 . ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   33028999. S2CID   222217027. Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Alt URL
  45. ↑ "Nitrogen fertiliser use could 'threaten global climate goals'". Carbon Brief. 7 October 2020. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  46. ↑ "Sectors: Rice cultivation". climatetrace.org. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
  47. ↑ Qian, Haoyu; Zhu, Xiangchen; Huang, Shan; Linquist, Bruce; Kuzyakov, Yakov; et al. (October 2023). "Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 4 (10): 716–732. Bibcode:2023NRvEE...4..716Q. doi:10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1. ISSN   2662-138X. S2CID   263197017. Rice paddies …. account for ~48% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from croplands.
  48. ↑ Gupta, Khushboo; Kumar, Raushan; Baruah, Kushal Kumar; Hazarika, Samarendra; Karmakar, Susmita; Bordoloi, Nirmali (June 2021). "Greenhouse gas emission from rice fields: a review from Indian context". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 28 (24): 30551–30572. Bibcode:2021ESPR...2830551G. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13935-1. PMID   33905059. S2CID   233403787.
  49. ↑ Neue, H. U. (1993). "Methane emission from rice fields: Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming". BioScience . 43 (7): 466–473. doi:10.2307/1311906. JSTOR   1311906. Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2008.
  50. ↑ Qian, Haoyu; Zhu, Xiangchen; Huang, Shan; Linquist, Bruce; Kuzyakov, Yakov; et al. (October 2023). "Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 4 (10): 716–732. Bibcode:2023NRvEE...4..716Q. doi:10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1. ISSN   2662-138X. S2CID   263197017.
  51. ↑ Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (2020). A sustainable food system for the European Union (PDF). Berlin: SAPEA. p. 39. doi:10.26356/sustainablefood. ISBN   978-3-9820301-7-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
  52. ↑ Michael Clark; Tilman, David (November 2014). "Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health". Nature. 515 (7528): 518–522. Bibcode:2014Natur.515..518T. doi:10.1038/nature13959. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   25383533. S2CID   4453972.
  53. ↑ "Livestock – Climate Change's Forgotten Sector: Global Public Opinion on Meat and Dairy Consumption". www.chathamhouse.org. 3 December 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  54. ↑ Barbière, Cécile (12 March 2020). "Europe's agricultural sector struggles to reduce emissions". www.euractiv.com. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  55. ↑ Anonymous (23 November 2016). "EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS)". Climate Action - European Commission. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  56. ↑ Vermeulen SJ, Dinesh D. 2016. Measures for climate change adaptation in agriculture. Opportunities for climate action in agricultural systems. CCAFS Info Note. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).
  57. ↑ McDowell, Richard W.; Herzig, Alexander; Weerden, Tony J. van der; Cleghorn, Christine; Kaye-Blake, William (23 November 2022). "Growing for good: producing a healthy, low greenhouse gas and water quality footprint diet in Aotearoa, New Zealand". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand: 1–25. doi: 10.1080/03036758.2022.2137532 .
  58. ↑ IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contributions of Working Groups I, Ii, and Iiito the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva: IPCC
  59. ↑ Basak R. 2016. Benefits and costs of climate change mitigation technologies in paddy rice: Focus on Bangladesh and Vietnam. CCAFS Working Paper no. 160. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/79059/retrieve
  60. ↑ Wernick, Adam (6 February 2019). "Climate change is the overlooked driver of Central American migration". The World (Podcast). Retrieved 31 May 2021.
  61. 1 2 Green, Lisa; Schmook, Birgit; Radel, Claudia; Mardero, Sofia (March 2020). "Living Smallholder Vulnerability: The Everyday Experience of Climate Change in Calakmul, Mexico". Journal of Latin American Geography. University of Texas Press. 19 (2): 110–142. doi:10.1353/lag.2020.0028. S2CID   216383920.
  62. ↑ Blitzer, Jonathan (3 April 2019). "How Climate Change is Fuelling the U.S. Border Crisis". The New Yorker. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  63. ↑ "Food for the Future - Assessments of Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture" (Press release). Imperial College Press. April 2015. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
  64. ↑ Hoffner, Erik (25 October 2019). "Grand African Savannah Green Up': Major $85 Million Project Announced to Scale up Agroforestry in Africa". Ecowatch. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  65. ↑ "Climate-Smart Agriculture". World Bank . Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  66. ↑ "Climate-Smart Agriculture". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 19 June 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  67. ↑ Das, Sharmistha; Chatterjee, Soumendu; Rajbanshi, Joy (20 January 2022). "Responses of soil organic carbon to conservation practices including climate-smart agriculture in tropical and subtropical regions: A meta-analysis". Science of the Total Environment. 805: 150428. Bibcode:2022ScTEn.805o0428D. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150428. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   34818818. S2CID   240584637.
  68. ↑ Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). "What is Climate Smart Agriculture?" (PDF). Retrieved 4 June 2022.
  69. ↑ Gupta, Debaditya; Gujre, Nihal; Singha, Siddhartha; Mitra, Sudip (1 November 2022). "Role of existing and emerging technologies in advancing climate-smart agriculture through modeling: A review". Ecological Informatics. 71: 101805. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2022.101805. ISSN   1574-9541. S2CID   252148026.
  70. ↑ Lipper, Leslie; McCarthy, Nancy; Zilberman, David; Asfaw, Solomon; Branca, Giacomo (2018). Climate Smart Agriculture Building Resilience to Climate Change. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 13. ISBN   978-3-319-61193-8.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.