Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity

Last updated

Alpine plants are one group expected to be highly susceptible to the impacts of climate change (Logan Pass, in Montana, United States). Alpine flora logan pass.jpg
Alpine plants are one group expected to be highly susceptible to the impacts of climate change (Logan Pass, in Montana, United States).

There is an ongoing decline in plant biodiversity, just like there is ongoing biodiversity loss for many other life forms. One of the causes for this decline is climate change. [1] [2] [3] Environmental conditions play a key role in defining the function and geographic distributions of plants. Therefore, when environmental conditions change, this can result in changes to biodiversity. [4] The effects of climate change on plant biodiversity can be predicted by using various models, for example bioclimatic models. [5] [6]

Contents

Habitats may change due to climate change. This can cause non-native plants and pests to impact native vegetation diversity. [7] Therefore, the native vegetation may become more vulnerable to damage. [8]

Another example are wildfires: if they become more intense due to climate change, this may result in more severe burn conditions and shorter burn intervals. This can threaten the biodiversity of native vegetation. [9]

Direct impacts

Changing climatic variables relevant to the function and distribution of plants include increasing CO2 concentrations (see CO2 fertilization effect), increasing global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and changes in the pattern of extreme weather events such as cyclones, fires or storms.

Because individual plants and therefore species can only function physiologically, and successfully complete their life cycles under specific environmental conditions (ideally within a subset of these), changes to climate are likely to have significant impacts on plants from the level of the individual right through to the level of the ecosystem or biome.

Effects of temperature

One common hypothesis among scientists is that the warmer an area is, the higher the plant diversity. This hypothesis can be observed in nature, where higher plant biodiversity is often located at certain latitudes (which often correlates with a specific climate/temperature). [10] Plant species in montane and snowy ecosystems are at greater risk for habitat loss due to climate change. [11] The effects of climate change are predicted to be more severe in mountains of northern latitude. [11] Heat and drought as a result of climate change has been found to severely impact tree mortality rates, putting forest ecosystems at high risk. [12]

Changes in distributions

Pine tree representing an elevational tree-limit rise of 105 m over the period 1915-1974. Nipfjallet, Sweden Alpineplantssweden.jpg
Pine tree representing an elevational tree-limit rise of 105 m over the period 1915–1974. Nipfjället, Sweden

If climatic factors such as temperature and precipitation change in a region beyond the tolerance of a species phenotypic plasticity, then distribution changes of the species may be inevitable. [13] There is already evidence that plant species are shifting their ranges in altitude and latitude as a response to changing regional climates. [14] [15] Yet it is difficult to predict how species ranges will change in response to climate and separate these changes from all the other man-made environmental changes such as eutrophication, acid rain and habitat destruction. [16] [17] [18]

When compared to the reported past migration rates of plant species, the rapid pace of current change has the potential to not only alter species distributions, but also render many species as unable to follow the climate to which they are adapted. [19] The environmental conditions required by some species, such as those in alpine regions may disappear altogether. The result of these changes is likely to be a rapid increase in extinction risk. [20] Adaptation to new conditions may also be of great importance in the response of plants. [21]

Predicting the extinction risk of plant species is not easy however. Estimations from particular periods of rapid climatic change in the past have shown relatively little species extinction in some regions, for example. [22] Knowledge of how species may adapt or persist in the face of rapid change is still relatively limited.

It is clear now that the loss of some species will be very dangerous for humans because they will stop providing services. Some of them have unique characteristics that cannot be replaced by any other. [23]

Distributions of species and plant species will narrow following the effects of climate change. [11] Climate change can affect areas such as wintering and breeding grounds to birds. Migratory birds use wintering and breeding grounds as a place to feed and recharge after migrating for long hours. [24] If these areas are damaged due to climate change, it will eventually affect them as well. [25]

Lowland forest have gotten smaller during the last glacial period and those small areas became island which are made up of drought resisting plants. In those small refugee areas there are also a lot of shade dependent plants. [23] As an example, the dynamics of the calcareous grassland were significantly impacted due to the climate factors. [26]

Changes in the suitability of a habitat for a species drive distributional changes by not only changing the area that a species can physiologically tolerate, but how effectively it can compete with other plants within this area. [27] Changes in community composition are therefore also an expected product of climate change.

Changes in life-cycles

Plants typically reside in locations that are beneficial to their life histories. [28] The timing of phenological events such as flowering and leaf production, are often related to environmental variables, including temperature, which can be altered by climate change. [29] Changing environments are, therefore, expected to lead to changes in life cycle events, and these have been recorded for many species of plants, therefore, many plant species are considered to be adequate indicators of climate change. [14] [30] These changes have the potential to lead to the asynchrony between species, or to change competition between plants. Both the insect pollinators and plant populations will eventually become extinct due to the uneven and confusing connection that is caused by the change of climate. [31] Flowering times in British plants for example have changed, leading to annual plants flowering earlier than perennials, and insect pollinated plants flowering earlier than wind pollinated plants; with potential ecological consequences. [32] Other observed effects also include the lengthening in growing seasons of certain agricultural crops such as wheat and maize. [33] A recently published study has used data recorded by the writer and naturalist Henry David Thoreau to confirm effects of climate change on the phenology of some species in the area of Concord, Massachusetts. [34] Another life-cycle change is a warmer winter which can lead to summer rainfall or summer drought. [26]

Ultimately, climate change can affect the phenology and interactions of many plant species, and depending on its effect, can make it difficult for a plant to be productive. [35]

Indirect impacts

All species are likely to be directly impacted by the changes in environmental conditions discussed above, and also indirectly through their interactions with other species. While direct impacts may be easier to predict and conceptualise, it is likely that indirect impacts are equally important in determining the response of plants to climate change. [36] [37] A species whose distribution changes as a direct result of climate change may invade the range of another species or be invaded, for example, introducing a new competitive relationship or altering other processes such as carbon sequestration. [38]

The range of a symbiotic fungi associated with plant roots (i.e., mycorrhizae) [39] may directly change as a result of altered climate, resulting in a change in the plant's distribution. [40]

Extinction risks

This section is an excerpt from Extinction risk from climate change § Plants.[ edit ]

Data from 2018 found that at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 3.2 °C (5.8 °F) of global warming, over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 8%, 16%, and 44% of plant species. This corresponds to more than 20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years under the IUCN criteria. [41] [42]

The 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report estimates that while at 2 °C (3.6 °F) of global warming, fewer than 3% of flowering plants would be at a very high risk of extinction, this increases to 10% at 3.2 °C (5.8 °F). [42]

A 2020 meta-analysis found that while 39% of vascular plant species were likely threatened with extinction, only 4.1% of this figure could be attributed to climate change, with land use change activities predominating. However, the researchers suggested that this may be more representative of the slower pace of research on effects of climate change on plants. For fungi, it estimated that 9.4% are threatened due to climate change, while 62% are threatened by other forms of habitat loss. [43]

Viola Calcarata or mountain violet, which is projected to go extinct in the Swiss Alps around 2050. Viola calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG
Viola Calcarata or mountain violet, which is projected to go extinct in the Swiss Alps around 2050.

Alpine and mountain plant species are known to be some of the most vulnerable to climate change. In 2010, a study looking at 2,632 species located in and around European mountain ranges found that depending on the climate scenario, 36–55% of alpine species, 31–51% of subalpine species and 19–46% of montane species would lose more than 80% of their suitable habitat by 2070–2100. [44] In 2012, it was estimated that for the 150 plant species in the European Alps, their range would, on average, decline by 44%-50% by the end of the century - moreover, lags in their shifts would mean that around 40% of their remaining range would soon become unsuitable as well, often leading to an extinction debt. [45] In 2022, it was found that those earlier studies simulated abrupt, "stepwise" climate shifts, while more realistic gradual warming would see a rebound in alpine plant diversity after mid-century under the "intermediate" and most intense global warming scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. However, for RCP8.5, that rebound would be deceptive, followed by the same collapse in biodiversity at the end of the century as simulated in the earlier papers. [46] This is because on average, every degree of warming reduces total species population growth by 7%, [47] and the rebound was driven by colonization of niches left behind by most vulnerable species like Androsace chamaejasme and Viola calcarata going extinct by mid-century or earlier. [46]

It's been estimated that by 2050, climate change alone could reduce species richness of trees in the Amazon Rainforest by 31–37%, while deforestation alone could be responsible for 19–36%, and the combined effect might reach 58%. The paper's worst-case scenario for both stressors had only 53% of the original rainforest area surviving as a continuous ecosystem by 2050, with the rest reduced to a severely fragmented block. [48] Another study estimated that the rainforest would lose 69% of its plant species under the warming of 4.5 °C (8.1 °F). [49]

Another estimate suggests that two prominent species of seagrasses in the Mediterranean Sea would be substantially affected under the worst-case greenhouse gas emission scenario, with Posidonia oceanica losing 75% of its habitat by 2050 and potentially becoming functionally extinct by 2100, while Cymodocea nodosa would lose ~46% of its habitat and then stabilize due to expansion into previously unsuitable areas. [50]

Challenges of modeling future impacts

Predicting the effects that climate change will have on plant biodiversity can be achieved using various models, however bioclimatic models are most commonly used. [5] [6]

Improvement of models is an active area of research, with new models attempting to take factors such as life-history traits of species or processes such as migration into account when predicting distribution changes; though possible trade-offs between regional accuracy and generality are recognised. [51]

Climate change is also predicted to interact with other drivers of biodiversity change such as habitat destruction and fragmentation, or the introduction of foreign species. These threats may possibly act in synergy to increase extinction risk from that seen in periods of rapid climate change in the past. [52]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holocene extinction</span> Ongoing extinction event caused by human activity

The Holocene extinction, or Anthropocene extinction, is the ongoing extinction event caused by humans during the Holocene epoch. These extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, and affecting not just terrestrial species but also large sectors of marine life. With widespread degradation of biodiversity hotspots, such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, which goes unrecorded. The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates and is increasing. During the past 100–200 years, biodiversity loss and species extinction have accelerated, to the point that most conservation biologists now believe that human activity has either produced a period of mass extinction, or is on the cusp of doing so. As such, after the "Big Five" mass extinctions, the Holocene extinction event has also been referred to as the sixth mass extinction or sixth extinction; given the recent recognition of the Capitanian mass extinction, the term seventh mass extinction has also been proposed for the Holocene extinction event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity</span> Variety and variability of life forms

Biodiversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than one-fifth of Earth's terrestrial area and contain about 50% of the world's species. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity for both marine and terrestrial taxa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation biology</span> Study of threats to biological diversity

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat conservation</span> Management practice for protecting types of environments

Habitat conservation is a management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore habitats and prevent species extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range. It is a priority of many groups that cannot be easily characterized in terms of any one ideology.

An ecological or environmental crisis occurs when changes to the environment of a species or population destabilizes its continued survival. Some of the important causes include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental gradient</span>

An environmental gradient, or climate gradient, is a change in abiotic (non-living) factors through space. Environmental gradients can be related to factors such as altitude, depth, temperature, soil humidity and precipitation. Often times, a multitude of biotic (living) factors are closely related to these gradients; as a result of a change in an environmental gradient, factors such as species abundance, population density, morphology, primary productivity, predation, and local adaptation may be impacted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat fragmentation</span> Discontinuities in an organisms environment causing population fragmentation.

Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment, and human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the extinction of many species. More specifically, habitat fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat destruction</span> Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species

Habitat destruction occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human impact on the environment</span> Impact of human life on Earth and environment

Human impact on the environment refers to changes to biophysical environments and to ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources caused directly or indirectly by humans. Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society is causing severe effects including global warming, environmental degradation, mass extinction and biodiversity loss, ecological crisis, and ecological collapse. Some human activities that cause damage to the environment on a global scale include population growth, neoliberal economic policies and rapid economic growth, overconsumption, overexploitation, pollution, and deforestation. Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss, have been proposed as representing catastrophic risks to the survival of the human species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extinction risk from climate change</span> Risk of plant or animal species becoming extinct due to climate change

There are several plausible pathways that could lead to an increased extinction risk from climate change. Every plant and animal species has evolved to exist within a certain ecological niche. But climate change leads to changes of temperature and average weather patterns. These changes can push climatic conditions outside of the species' niche, and ultimately render it extinct. Normally, species faced with changing conditions can either adapt in place through microevolution or move to another habitat with suitable conditions. However, the speed of recent climate change is very fast. Due to this rapid change, for example cold-blooded animals may struggle to find a suitable habitat within 50 km of their current location at the end of this century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Defaunation</span> Loss or extinctions of animals in the forests

Defaunation is the global, local, or functional extinction of animal populations or species from ecological communities. The growth of the human population, combined with advances in harvesting technologies, has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment. This has resulted in the depletion of large vertebrates from ecological communities, creating what has been termed "empty forest". Defaunation differs from extinction; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance. Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas, Brazil in 1988 in the context of Neotropical forests. Since then, the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues</span> Concerns and policies regarding the biophysical environment

Environmental issues are disruptions in the usual function of ecosystems. Further, these issues can be caused by humans or they can be natural. These issues are considered serious when the ecosystem cannot recover in the present situation, and catastrophic if the ecosystem is projected to certainly collapse.

In paleoecology and ecological forecasting, a no-analog community or climate is one that is compositionally different from a baseline for measurement. Alternative naming conventions to describe no-analog communities and climates may include novel, emerging, mosaic, disharmonious and intermingled.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity loss</span> Extinction of species or loss of species in a given habitat

Biodiversity loss happens when plant or animal species disappear completely from Earth (extinction) or when there is a decrease or disappearance of species in a specific area. Biodiversity loss means that there is a reduction in biological diversity in a given area. The decrease can be temporary or permanent. It is temporary if the damage that led to the loss is reversible in time, for example through ecological restoration. If this is not possible, then the decrease is permanent. The cause of most of the biodiversity loss is, generally speaking, human activities that push the planetary boundaries too far. These activities include habitat destruction and land use intensification. Further problem areas are air and water pollution, over-exploitation, invasive species and climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem collapse</span> Ecological communities abruptly losing biodiversity, often irreversibly

An ecosystem, short for ecological system, is defined as a collection of interacting organisms within a biophysical environment. Ecosystems are never static, and are continually subject to both stabilizing and destabilizing processes. Stabilizing processes allow ecosystems to adequately respond to destabilizing changes, or perturbations, in ecological conditions, or to recover from degradation induced by them: yet, if destabilizing processes become strong enough or fast enough to cross a critical threshold within that ecosystem, often described as an ecological 'tipping point', then an ecosystem collapse. occurs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and invasive species</span> Increase of invasive organisms caused by climate change

Climate change and invasive species refers to the process of the environmental destabilization caused by climate change. This environmental change facilitates the spread of invasive species — species that are not historically found in a certain region, and often bring about a negative impact to that region's native species. This complex relationship is notable because climate change and invasive species are also considered by the USDA to be two of the top four causes of global biodiversity loss.

Conservation paleobiology is a field of paleontology that applies the knowledge of the geological and paleoecological record to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Despite the influence of paleontology on ecological sciences can be traced back at least at the 18th century, the current field has been established by the work of K.W. Flessa and G.P. Dietl in the first decade of the 21st century. The discipline utilizes paleontological and geological data to understand how biotas respond to climate and other natural and anthropogenic environmental change. These information are then used to address the challenges faced by modern conservation biology, like understanding the extinction risk of endangered species, providing baselines for restoration and modelling future scenarios for species range's contraction or expansion.

Disease ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology concerned with the mechanisms, patterns, and effects of host-pathogen interactions, particularly those of infectious diseases. For example, it examines how parasites spread through and influence wildlife populations and communities. By studying the flow of diseases within the natural environment, scientists seek to better understand how changes within our environment can shape how pathogens, and other diseases, travel. Therefore, diseases ecology seeks to understand the links between ecological interactions and disease evolution. New emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases are increasing at unprecedented rates which can have lasting impacts on public health, ecosystem health, and biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and birds</span>

Significant work has gone into analyzing the effects of climate change on birds. Like other animal groups, birds are affected by anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change. The research includes tracking the changes in species' life cycles over decades in response to the changing world, evaluating the role of differing evolutionary pressures and even comparing museum specimens with modern birds to track changes in appearance and body structure. Predictions of range shifts caused by the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on bird species are amongst the most important, as they are crucial for informing animal conservation work, required to minimize extinction risk from climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on biomes</span>

Climate change is already now altering biomes, adversely affecting terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Climate change represents long-term changes in temperature and average weather patterns. This leads to a substantial increase in both the frequency and the intensity of extreme weather events. As a region's climate changes, a change in its flora and fauna follows. For instance, out of 4000 species analyzed by the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change.

References

  1. ↑ Chapin III FS, Zavaleta ES, Eviner VT, Naylor RL, Vitousek PM, Reynolds HL, Hooper DU, Lavorel S, Sala OE (May 2000). "Consequences of changing biodiversity". Nature. 405 (6783): 234–242. doi:10.1038/35012241. hdl: 11336/37401 . ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   10821284. S2CID   205006508.
  2. ↑ Sala OE, Chapin FS, Armesto JJ, et al. (March 2000). "Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100". Science . 287 (5459): 1770–4. Bibcode:2000Sci...287.1770S. doi:10.1126/science.287.5459.1770. PMID   10710299. S2CID   13336469.
  3. ↑ Duraiappah, Anantha K. (2006). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems And Human-well Being—biodiversity Synthesis. Washington, D.C: World Resources Institute. ISBN   978-1-56973-588-6.
  4. ↑ FITZPATRICK MC, GOVE AD, SANDERS NJ, DUNN RR (2008-02-07). "Climate change, plant migration, and range collapse in a global biodiversity hotspot: the Banksia (Proteaceae) of Western Australia". Global Change Biology. 14 (6): 1337–1352. Bibcode:2008GCBio..14.1337F. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01559.x. ISSN   1354-1013. S2CID   31990487.
  5. 1 2 Garcia RA, Cabeza M, Rahbek C, Araújo MB (2014-05-02). "Multiple Dimensions of Climate Change and Their Implications for Biodiversity". Science. 344 (6183). doi:10.1126/science.1247579. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   24786084. S2CID   2802364.
  6. 1 2 Sönmez O, Saud S, Wang D, Wu C, Adnan M, Turan V (2021-04-27). Climate Change and Plants. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781003108931. ISBN   978-1-003-10893-1. S2CID   234855015.
  7. ↑ Bradley BA, Wilcove DS, Oppenheimer M (2010). "Climate change increases risk of plant invasion in the Eastern United States". Biological Invasions. 12 (6): 1855–1872. Bibcode:2010BiInv..12.1855B. doi:10.1007/s10530-009-9597-y. ISSN   1387-3547. S2CID   15917371.
  8. ↑ Boyd IL, Freer-Smith PH, Gilligan CA, Godfray HC (2013-11-15). "The Consequence of Tree Pests and Diseases for Ecosystem Services". Science. 342 (6160): 1235773. doi:10.1126/science.1235773. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   24233727. S2CID   27098882.
  9. ↑ Jolly WM, Cochrane MA, Freeborn PH, Holden ZA, Brown TJ, Williamson GJ, Bowman DM (2015). "Climate-induced variations in global wildfire danger from 1979 to 2013". Nature Communications. 6 (1): 7537. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.7537J. doi:10.1038/ncomms8537. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   4803474 . PMID   26172867.
  10. ↑ Clarke A, Gaston K (2006). "Climate, energy and diversity". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1599): 2257–2266. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3545. PMC   1636092 . PMID   16928626.
  11. 1 2 3 Applequist WL, Brinckmann JA, Cunningham AB, Hart RE, Heinrich M, Katerere DR, Andel Tv (January 2020). "Scientistsʼ Warning on Climate Change and Medicinal Plants". Planta Medica. 86 (1): 10–18. doi: 10.1055/a-1041-3406 . hdl: 1887/81483 . ISSN   0032-0943. PMID   31731314. S2CID   208062185.
  12. ↑ Allen, C. D., Macalady, A. K., Chenchouni, H., Bachelet, D., McDowell, N., Vennetier, M., Kitzberger, T., Rigling, A., Breshears, D. D., Hogg, E. H. (Ted), Gonzalez, P., Fensham, R., Zhang, Z., Castro, J., Demidova, N., Lim, J.-H., Allard, G., Running, S. W., Semerci, A., & Cobb, N. (2010). A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 259(4), 660–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001
  13. ↑ Lynch M., Lande R. (1993). "Evolution and extinction in response to environmental change". In Huey, Raymond B., Kareiva, Peter M., Kingsolver, Joel G. (eds.). Biotic Interactions and Global Change. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. pp.  234–50. ISBN   978-0-87893-430-0.
  14. 1 2 Parmesan C, Yohe G (January 2003). "A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems". Nature. 421 (6918): 37–42. Bibcode:2003Natur.421...37P. doi:10.1038/nature01286. PMID   12511946. S2CID   1190097.
  15. ↑ Walther GR, Post E, Convey P, et al. (March 2002). "Ecological responses to recent climate change". Nature. 416 (6879): 389–95. Bibcode:2002Natur.416..389W. doi:10.1038/416389a. PMID   11919621. S2CID   1176350.
  16. ↑ Lenoir J, Gégout JC, Guisan A, Vittoz P, Wohlgemuth T, Zimmermann NE, Dullinger S, Pauli H, Willner W, Svenning JC (2010). "Going against the flow: potential mechanisms for unexpected downslope range shifts in a warming climate". Ecography. 33 (2): 295–303. Bibcode:2010Ecogr..33..295L. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.463.4647 . doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06279.x.
  17. ↑ Groom, Q. (2012). "Some poleward movement of British native vascular plants is occurring, but the fingerprint of climate change is not evident". PeerJ. 1 (e77): e77. doi: 10.7717/peerj.77 . PMC   3669268 . PMID   23734340.
  18. ↑ Hilbish TJ, Brannock PM, Jones KR, Smith AB, Bullock BN, Wethey DS (2010). "Historical changes in the distributions of invasive and endemic marine invertebrates are contrary to global warming predictions: the effects of decadal climate oscillations". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (3): 423–431. Bibcode:2010JBiog..37..423H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02218.x. S2CID   83769972.
  19. ↑ Davis MB, Shaw RG (April 2001). "Range shifts and adaptive responses to Quaternary climate change". Science. 292 (5517): 673–9. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..673D. doi:10.1126/science.292.5517.673. PMID   11326089.
  20. ↑ Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, et al. (January 2004). "Extinction risk from climate change" (PDF). Nature. 427 (6970): 145–8. Bibcode:2004Natur.427..145T. doi:10.1038/nature02121. PMID   14712274. S2CID   969382.
  21. ↑ Jump A, Penuelas J (2005). "Running to stand still: adaptation and the response of plants to rapid climate change". Ecol. Lett. 8 (9): 1010–20. Bibcode:2005EcolL...8.1010J. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00796.x. PMID   34517682.
  22. ↑ Botkin DB, et al. (2007). "Forecasting the effects of global warming on biodiversity". BioScience. 57 (3): 227–36. doi: 10.1641/B570306 .
  23. 1 2 Kappelle M, Van Vuuren MM, Baas P (1999-10-01). "Effects of climate change on biodiversity: a review and identification of key research issues". Biodiversity & Conservation. 8 (10): 1383–1397. Bibcode:1999BiCon...8.1383K. doi:10.1023/A:1008934324223. ISSN   1572-9710. S2CID   30895931.
  24. ↑ "The Full Annual Cycle of Migratory Birds". Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. Retrieved 2024-04-16.
  25. ↑ Clairbaux M, Fort J, Mathewson P, Porter W, Strøm H, Grémillet D (2019-11-28). "Climate change could overturn bird migration: Transarctic flights and high-latitude residency in a sea ice free Arctic". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 17767. Bibcode:2019NatSR...917767C. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-54228-5 . ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   6883031 . PMID   31780706. S2CID   208330067.
  26. 1 2 Sternberg M, Brown VK, Masters GJ, Clarke IP (1999-07-01). "Plant community dynamics in a calcareous grassland under climate change manipulations". Plant Ecology. 143 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1023/A:1009812024996. ISSN   1573-5052. S2CID   24847776.
  27. ↑ "Tunza Eco-generation Eco-generation". tunza.eco-generation.org. Retrieved 2024-04-07.
  28. ↑ Fitchett JM, Grab SW, Thompson DI (August 2015). "Plant phenology and climate change: Progress in methodological approaches and application". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment. 39 (4): 460–482. doi:10.1177/0309133315578940. ISSN   0309-1333.
  29. ↑ Piao S, Liu Q, Chen A, Janssens IA, Fu Y, Dai J, Liu L, Lian X, Shen M, Zhu X (June 2019). "Plant phenology and global climate change: Current progresses and challenges". Global Change Biology. 25 (6): 1922–1940. Bibcode:2019GCBio..25.1922P. doi:10.1111/gcb.14619. hdl: 10397/94083 . ISSN   1354-1013. PMID   30884039.
  30. ↑ Raza A, Razzaq A, Mehmood SS, Zou X, Zhang X, Lv Y, Xu J (February 2019). "Impact of Climate Change on Crops Adaptation and Strategies to Tackle Its Outcome: A Review". Plants. 8 (2): 34. doi: 10.3390/plants8020034 . ISSN   2223-7747. PMC   6409995 . PMID   30704089.
  31. ↑ Bellard C, Bertelsmeier C, Leadley P, Thuiller W, Courchamp F (2012-01-18). "Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity". Ecology Letters. 15 (4): 365–377. Bibcode:2012EcolL..15..365B. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x. ISSN   1461-023X. PMC   3880584 . PMID   22257223.
  32. ↑ Fitter AH, Fitter RS (May 2002). "Rapid changes in flowering time in British plants". Science. 296 (5573): 1689–91. Bibcode:2002Sci...296.1689F. doi:10.1126/science.1071617. PMID   12040195. S2CID   24973973.
  33. ↑ Mueller B, Hauser M, Iles C, Rimi RH, Zwiers FW, Wan H (September 2015). "Lengthening of the growing season in wheat and maize producing regions". Weather and Climate Extremes. 9: 47–56. Bibcode:2015WCE.....9...47M. doi:10.1016/j.wace.2015.04.001. hdl: 20.500.11820/4fbc5b6f-837e-4e5f-9eb8-3d82818b027e .
  34. ↑ Willis CG, Ruhfel B, Primack RB, Miller-Rushing AJ, Davis CC (November 2008). "Phylogenetic patterns of species loss in Thoreau's woods are driven by climate change". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (44): 17029–33. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10517029W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0806446105 . PMC   2573948 . PMID   18955707.
  35. ↑ Pareek A, Dhankher OP, Foyer CH (2020-01-07). "Mitigating the impact of climate change on plant productivity and ecosystem sustainability". Journal of Experimental Botany. 71 (2): 451–456. doi:10.1093/jxb/erz518. ISSN   0022-0957. PMC   6945998 . PMID   31909813.
  36. ↑ Dadamouny M (2009). "Population Ecology of Moringa peregrina growing in Southern Sinai, Egypt". M.Sc. Suez Canal University, Faculty of Science, Botany Department. p. 205.
  37. ↑ Dadamouny, M.A., Zaghloul, M.S., Salman, A, Moustafa, A.A. "Impact of Improved Soil Properties on Establishment of Moringa peregrina seedlings and trial to decrease its Mortality Rate" . ResearchGate.
  38. ↑ Krotz D (2013-05-05). "New Study: As Climate Changes, Boreal Forests to Shift North and Relinquish More Carbon Than Expected | Berkeley Lab". News Center. Retrieved 2015-11-09.
  39. ↑ Rédei GP (2008). Encyclopedia of genetics, genomics, proteomics, and informatics. Springer Science & Business Media.
  40. ↑ Craine JM, Elmore AJ, Aidar MP, Bustamante M, Dawson TE, Hobbie EA, Kahmen A, Mack MC, McLauchlan KK (September 2009). "Global patterns of foliar nitrogen isotopes and their relationships with climate, mycorrhizal fungi, foliar nutrient concentrations, and nitrogen availability". New Phytologist. 183 (4): 980–992. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02917.x . ISSN   0028-646X. PMID   19563444.
  41. ↑ Warren R, Price J, Graham E, Forstenhaeusler N, VanDerWal J (18 May 2018). "The projected effect on insects, vertebrates, and plants of limiting global warming to 1.5°C rather than 2°C". Science. 360 (6390): 791–795. doi:10.1126/science.aar3646. PMID   29773751. S2CID   21722550.
  42. 1 2 Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257-260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004
  43. ↑ Lughadha EN, Bachman SP, Leão TC, Forest F, Halley JM, Moat J, Acedo C, Bacon KL, Brewer RF, Gâteblé G, Gonçalves SC, Govaerts R, Hollingsworth PM, Krisai-Greilhuber I, de Lirio EJ, Moore PG, Negrão R, Onana JM, Rajaovelona LR, Razanajatovo H, Reich PB, Richards SL, Rivers MC, Cooper A, Iganci J, Lewis GP, Smidt EC, Antonelli A, Mueller GM, Walker BE (29 September 2020). "Extinction risk and threats to plants and fungi". Plants People Planet. 2 (5): 389–408. doi:10.1002/ppp3.10146. S2CID   225274409.
  44. ↑ Engler R, Randin CF, Thuiler W, Dullinger S, Zimmermann NE, Araujo MB, Pearman PB, Le Lay G, Piedallu C, Albert CH, Choler P, Coldea G, De Lamo X, Dirnböck T, Gegout JC, Gomez-Garcia D, Grythes JA, Heegaard E, Hoistad F, Nogues-Bravo D, Normand S, Puscas M, Sebastia MT, Stanisci A, Theurillat JP, Trivedi MR, Vittoz P, Guisan A (24 December 2010). "21st century climate change threatens mountain flora unequally across Europe". Global Change Biology. 17 (7): 2330–2341. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x. S2CID   53579186.
  45. ↑ Dullinger S, Gattringer A, Thuiler W, Moser D, Zimmermann NE, Guisan A, Willner W, Plutzar C, Leitner M, Mang T, Caccianiga M, Dirnböck T, Ertl S, Fischer A, Lenoir J, Svenning JC, Psomas A, Schmatz DR, Silc U, Vittoz P, Hülber K (6 May 2012). "Extinction debt of high-mountain plants under twenty-first-century climate change". Nature Climate Change. 2 (8): 619–622. Bibcode:2012NatCC...2..619D. doi:10.1038/nclimate1514.
  46. 1 2 Block S, Maechler MJ, Levine JI, Alexander JM, Pellissier L, Levine JM (26 August 2022). "Ecological lags govern the pace and outcome of plant community responses to 21st-century climate change". Ecology Letters. 25 (10): 2156–2166. Bibcode:2022EcolL..25.2156B. doi:10.1111/ele.14087. PMC   9804264 . PMID   36028464.
  47. ↑ Nomoto HA, Alexander JM (29 March 2021). "Drivers of local extinction risk in alpine plants under warming climate". Ecology Letters. 24 (6): 1157–1166. Bibcode:2021EcolL..24.1157N. doi:10.1111/ele.13727. PMC   7612402 . PMID   33780124.
  48. ↑ Molnár PK, Bitz CM, Holland MM, Kay JE, Penk SR, Amstrup SC (24 June 2019). "Amazonian tree species threatened by deforestation and climate change". Nature Climate Change. 9 (7): 547–553. Bibcode:2019NatCC...9..547G. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0500-2. S2CID   196648161.
  49. ↑ Warren R, Price J, VanDerWal J, Cornelius S, Sohl H (March 14, 2018). "The implications of the United Nations Paris Agreement on climate change for globally significant biodiversity areas". Climatic Change. 147 (3–4): 395–409. Bibcode:2018ClCh..147..395W. doi:10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6. S2CID   158490978.
  50. ↑ Chefaoui RM, Duarte CM, Serrão EA (July 14, 2018). "Dramatic loss of seagrass habitat under projected climate change in the Mediterranean Sea". Global Change Biology. 24 (10): 4919–4928. Bibcode:2018GCBio..24.4919C. doi:10.1111/gcb.14401. PMID   30006980. S2CID   51625384.
  51. ↑ Thuiller W, et al. (2008). "Predicting global change impacts on plant species' distributions: Future challenges". Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 9 (3–4): 137–52. Bibcode:2008PPEES...9..137T. doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2007.09.004.
  52. ↑ Mackey, B. (2007). "Climate change, connectivity and biodiversity conservation". In Taylor M., Figgis P. (eds.). Protected Areas: buffering nature against climate change. Proceedings of a WWF and IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas symposium, Canberra, 18–19 June 2007. Sydney: WWF-Australia. pp. 90–6.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.