Emission intensity

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The carbon intensity of electricity measures the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of electricity produced. The units are in grams of CO2equivalents per kilowatt-hour of electricity. Carbon-intensity-electricity.svg
The carbon intensity of electricity measures the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of electricity produced. The units are in grams of CO₂equivalents per kilowatt-hour of electricity.
Carbon emission intensity of economies in kg of CO2 per unit of GDP (2016) Co2-intensity.png
Carbon emission intensity of economies in kg of CO₂ per unit of GDP (2016)

An emission intensity (also carbon intensity or C.I.) is the emission rate of a given pollutant relative to the intensity of a specific activity, or an industrial production process; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product (GDP). Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted, the number of animals in animal husbandry, on industrial production levels, distances traveled or similar activity data. Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities. In some case the related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are used interchangeably. The jargon used can be different, for different fields/industrial sectors; normally the term "carbon" excludes other pollutants, such as particulate emissions. One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour (CIPK), which is used to compare emissions from different sources of electrical power.

Contents

Methodologies

Different methodologies can be used to assess the carbon intensity of a process. Among the most used methodologies there are:

Different calculation methods can lead to different results. The results can largely vary also for different geographic regions and timeframes (see, in example, how C.I. of electricity varies, for different European countries, and how varied in a few years: from 2009 to 2013 the C.I. of electricity in the European Union fell on average by 20%, [3] So while comparing different values of Carbon Intensity it is important to correctly consider all the boundary conditions (or initial hypotheses) considered for the calculations. For example, Chinese oil fields emit between 1.5 and more than 40 g of CO2e per MJ with about 90% of all fields emitting 1.5–13.5 g CO2e. [4] Such highly skewed carbon intensity patterns necessitate disaggregation of seemingly homogeneous emission activities and proper consideration of many factors for understanding. [5]

An air pollution emission source AirPollutionSource.jpg
An air pollution emission source

Estimating emissions

Emission factors assume a linear relation between the intensity of the activity and the emission resulting from this activity:

Emissionpollutant = Activity * Emission Factorpollutant

Intensities are also used in projecting possible future scenarios such as those used in the IPCC assessments, along with projected future changes in population, economic activity and energy technologies. The interrelations of these variables is treated under the so-called Kaya identity.

The level of uncertainty of the resulting estimates depends significantly on the source category and the pollutant. Some examples:

Electric generation

A literature review of numerous total life cycle energy sources CO2 emissions per unit of electricity generated, conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2011, found that the CO2 emission value, that fell within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies were as follows. [6]

Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source [6]
TechnologyDescription50th percentile
(g CO2-eq/kWhe)
Hydroelectric reservoir4
Wind onshore 12
Nuclear various generation II reactor types16
Biomass various230
Solar thermal parabolic trough 22
Geothermal hot dry rock 45
Solar PV Polycrystalline silicon 46
Natural gas various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing469
Coal various generator types without scrubbing1001
Emission factors of common fuels
Fuel/
Resource		Thermal
g(CO2e)/MJth		Energy Intensity (min & max estimate)
W·hth/W·he		Electric (min & max estimate)
g(CO2)/kW·he
wood 115 [7]
Peat 106 [8]
110 [7]
Coal
Oil 73 [11] 3.40893 [10]
Natural gas
Geothermal
Power 		3~
Uranium
Nuclear power
Hydroelectricity 0.046 (0.020 – 0.137) [9] 15 (6.5 – 44) [9]
Conc. Solar Pwr 40±15#
Photovoltaics 0.33 (0.16 – 0.67) [9] 106 (53–217) [9]
Wind power 0.066 (0.041 – 0.12) [9] 21 (13–40) [9]

Note: 3.6 MJ = megajoule(s) == 1 kW·h = kilowatt-hour(s), thus 1 g/MJ = 3.6 g/kW·h.

Legend: B = Black coal (supercritical)–(new subcritical), Br = Brown coal (new subcritical), cc = combined cycle, oc = open cycle, TL = low-temperature/closed-circuit (geothermal doublet), TH = high-temperature/open-circuit, WL = Light Water Reactors, WH = Heavy Water Reactors, #Educated estimate.

Carbon intensity of regions

Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change. GHG intensity 2000.svg
Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change.
Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982-2011. Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982-2011.png
Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982–2011.
Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982-2011. Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982-2011 (corrected).png
Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982–2011.

The following tables show carbon intensity of GDP in market exchange rates (MER) and purchasing power parities (PPP). Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars. Data are taken from the US Energy Information Administration. [12] Annual data between 1980 and 2009 are averaged over three decades: 1980–89, 1990–99, and 2000–09.

Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in MER [12]
1980–891990–992000–09
Africa 1.131491.207021.03995
Asia & Oceania 0.862560.830150.91721
Central & South America 0.558400.572780.56015
Eurasia NA3.317862.36849
Europe 0.368400.372450.30975
Middle East 0.987791.214751.22310
North America 0.693810.586810.48160
World 0.621700.661200.60725
Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in PPP [12]
1980–891990–992000–09
Africa0.488440.502150.43067
Asia & Oceania0.661870.592490.57356
Central & South America0.300950.307400.30185
EurasiaNA1.431611.02797
Europe0.404130.388970.32077
Middle East0.516410.656900.65723
North America0.667430.566340.46509
World0.544950.548680.48058

In 2009 CO2 intensity of GDP in the OECD countries reduced by 2.9% and amounted to 0.33 kCO2/$05p in the OECD countries. [13] ("$05p" = 2005 US dollars, using purchasing power parities). The USA posted a higher ratio of 0.41 kCO2/$05p while Europe showed the largest drop in CO2 intensity compared to the previous year (−3.7%). CO2 intensity continued to be roughly higher in non-OECD countries. Despite a slight improvement, China continued to post a high CO2 intensity (0.81 kCO2/$05p). CO2 intensity in Asia rose by 2% during 2009 since energy consumption continued to develop at a strong pace. Important ratios were also observed in countries in CIS and the Middle East.

Carbon intensity in Europe

Total CO2 emissions from energy use were 5% below their 1990 level in 2007. [14] Over the period 1990–2007, CO2 emissions from energy use have decreased on average by 0.3%/year although the economic activity (GDP) increased by 2.3%/year. After dropping until 1994 (−1.6%/year), the CO2 emissions have increased steadily (0.4%/year on average) until 2003 and decreased slowly again since (on average by 0.6%/year). Total CO2 emissions per capita decreased from 8.7 t in 1990 to 7.8 t in 2007, that is to say a decrease by 10%. Almost 40% of the reduction in CO2 intensity is due to increased use of energy carriers with lower emission factors. Total CO2 emissions per unit of GDP, the “CO2 intensity”, decreased more rapidly than energy intensity: by 2.3%/year and 1.4%/year, respectively, on average between 1990 and 2007. [15]

However, while the reports from 2007 suggest that the CO2 emissions are going down recent studies find that the global emissions are rapidly escalating. According to the Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change report, conducted by the IPCC, it states that it 2019 the world emissions output was 59 gigatonnes. [16] This shows that global emissions has grown rapidly, increasing by about 2.1% each year compared from the previous decade. [16]

The Commodity Exchange Bratislava (CEB) has calculated carbon intensity for Voluntary Emissions Reduction projects carbon intensity in 2012 to be 0.343 tn/MWh. [17]

According to data from the European Commission, in order to achieve the EU goal of decreasing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990, EU-based energy investment has to double from the previous decade to more than €400 billion annually this decade. This includes the roughly €300 billion in yearly investment required for energy efficiency and the roughly €120 billion required for power networks and renewable energy facilities. [18] [19]

Emission factors for greenhouse gas inventory reporting

One of the most important uses of emission factors is for the reporting of national greenhouse gas inventories under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The so-called Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC have to annually report their national total emissions of greenhouse gases in a formalized reporting format, defining the source categories and fuels that must be included.

The UNFCCC has accepted the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, [20] developed and published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the emission estimation methods that must be used by the parties to the convention to ensure transparency, completeness, consistency, comparability and accuracy of the national greenhouse gas inventories. [21] These IPCC Guidelines are the primary source for default emission factors. Recently IPCC has published the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. These and many more greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on IPCC's Emission Factor Database. [22] Commercially applicable organisational greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on the search engine, EmissionFactors.com. [23]

Particularly for non-CO2e emissions, there is often a high degree of uncertainty associated with these emission factors when applied to individual countries. In general, the use of country-specific emission factors would provide more accurate estimates of emissions than the use of the default emission factors. According to the IPCC, if an activity is a major source of emissions for a country ('key source'), it is 'good practice' to develop a country-specific emission factor for that activity.

Emission factors for air pollutant inventory reporting

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive (2016) require countries to produce annual National Air Pollution Emission Inventories under the provisions of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP).

The European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) Task Force of the European Environment Agency has developed methods to estimate emissions and the associated emission factors for air pollutants, which have been published in the EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook [24] [25] on Emission Inventories and Projections TFEIP. [26]

Intensity targets

Coal, being mostly carbon, emits a lot of CO2 when burnt: it has a high CO2 emission intensity. Natural gas, being methane (CH4), has 4 hydrogen atoms to burn for each one of carbon and thus has medium CO2 emission intensity.

Sources of emission factors

Greenhouse gases

Air pollutants

Well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally

In an August 31, 2018 article by Masnadi et al. which was published by Science , the authors used "open-source oil-sector CI modeling tools" to "model well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally—and to identify major drivers of these emissions." [27] They compared 90 countries with the highest crude oil footprint. [27] [28] The Science study, which was conducted by Stanford University found that Canadian crude oil is the "fourth-most greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive in the world" behind Algeria, Venezuela and Cameroon. [29] [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global warming potential</span> Potential heat absorbed by a greenhouse gas

Global warming potential (GWP) is an index to measure how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere. The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regard to their "effectiveness in causing radiative forcing". It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide, which is taken as a reference gas. Therefore, the GWP has a value of 1 for CO2. For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fossil fuel power station</span> Facility that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity

A fossil fuel power station is a thermal power station which burns a fossil fuel, such as coal, oil, or natural gas, to produce electricity. Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy, which then operates an electrical generator. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas turbine or, in small plants, a reciprocating gas engine. All plants use the energy extracted from the expansion of a hot gas, either steam or combustion gases. Although different energy conversion methods exist, all thermal power station conversion methods have their efficiency limited by the Carnot efficiency and therefore produce waste heat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon footprint</span> Concept to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from activities or products

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be for example tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon capture and storage</span> Collecting carbon dioxide from industrial emissions

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a process in which a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial sources is separated, treated and transported to a long-term storage location. For example, the burning of fossil fuels or biomass results in a stream of CO2 that could be captured and stored by CCS. Usually the CO2 is captured from large point sources, such as a chemical plant or a bioenergy plant, and then stored in a suitable geological formation. The aim is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus mitigate climate change. For example, CCS retrofits for existing power plants can be one of the ways to limit emissions from the electricity sector and meet the Paris Agreement goals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon accounting</span> Processes used to measure how much carbon dioxide equivalents an organization sequesters or emits

Carbon accounting is a framework of methods to measure and track how much greenhouse gas (GHG) an organization emits. It can also be used to track projects or actions to reduce emissions in sectors such as forestry or renewable energy. Corporations, cities and other groups use these techniques to help limit climate change. Organizations will often set an emissions baseline, create targets for reducing emissions, and track progress towards them. The accounting methods enable them to do this in a more consistent and transparent manner.

An emission inventory is an accounting of the amount of pollutants discharged into the atmosphere. An emission inventory usually contains the total emissions for one or more specific greenhouse gases or air pollutants, originating from all source categories in a certain geographical area and within a specified time span, usually a specific year.

Greenhouse gas inventories are emission inventories of greenhouse gas emissions that are developed for a variety of reasons. Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic (human-caused) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models. Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biomass (energy)</span> Biological material used as a renewable energy source

In the context of energy production, biomass is matter from recently living organisms which is used for bioenergy production. Examples include wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues including straw, and organic waste from industry and households. Wood and wood residues is the largest biomass energy source today. Wood can be used as a fuel directly or processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. Other plants can also be used as fuel, for instance maize, switchgrass, miscanthus and bamboo. The main waste feedstocks are wood waste, agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, and manufacturing waste. Upgrading raw biomass to higher grade fuels can be achieved by different methods, broadly classified as thermal, chemical, or biochemical.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions</span> Sources and amounts of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere from human activities

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide, from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC, of which 484±20 GtC from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</span> Climate changing gases from the North American country

The United States produced 5.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020, the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person. In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GHG, followed by the United States with 11%, then India with 6.6%. In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG, more than any other country. Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and, amongst the top eight emitters, is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Vietnam</span>

Vietnam is a dynamic developing economy with a relatively high growth rate. The energy sector plays a key role in promoting the country's socio-economic development. Vietnam has a diverse energy fuel resource of various types such as coal, natural gas, petroleum, hydropower and renewables such as solar and wind energy. The country has recently been successful in renewable energy deployment, especially solar and wind power development. Coal has been the key power generation source since 2018. Coal accounted for about 30% of installed capacity and 47% of electricity generation in 2021 The high use of coal makes Vietnam an increasingly important emitter of carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change.

Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the environmental impacts of electricity generation. Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global warming potential of energy sources through life-cycle assessment. These are usually sources of only electrical energy but sometimes sources of heat are evaluated. The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source. The scale uses the global warming potential unit, the carbon dioxide equivalent, and the unit of electrical energy, the kilowatt hour (kWh). The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source, from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management.

A climate change scenario is a hypothetical future based on a "set of key driving forces". Scenarios explore the long-term effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation. Scenarios help to understand what the future may hold. They can show which decisions will have the most meaningful effects on mitigation and adaptation.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began regulating greenhouse gases (GHGs) under the Clean Air Act from mobile and stationary sources of air pollution for the first time on January 2, 2011. Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA, and GHGs from stationary sources are currently controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act. The basis for regulations was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in June 2012.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia</span> Greenhouse gas emissions originating from Russia and efforts to reduce them

Greenhouse gas emissionsbyRussia are mostly from fossil gas, oil and coal. Russia emits 2 or 3 billion tonnes CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year; about 4% of world emissions. Annual carbon dioxide emissions alone are about 12 tons per person, more than double the world average. Cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and therefore air pollution in Russia, would have health benefits greater than the cost. The country is the world's biggest methane emitter, and 4 billion dollars worth of methane was estimated to leak in 2019/20.

References

  1. ↑ Moro A; Helmers E (2017). "A new hybrid method for reducing the gap between WTW and LCA in the carbon footprint assessment of electric vehicles". Int J Life Cycle Assess. 22: 4–14. doi: 10.1007/s11367-015-0954-z .
  2. ↑ This method is used by the International Energy Agency in the annual report: CO2 emissions from fuel combustion Archived 2018-03-31 at the Wayback Machine .
  3. ↑ Moro A; Lonza L (2018). "Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 64: 5–14. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012. PMC   6358150 . PMID   30740029.
  4. ↑ Masnadi, M. (2018). "Well-to-refinery emissions and net-energy analysis of China's crude-oil supply". Nature Energy. 3 (3): 220–226. Bibcode:2018NatEn...3..220M. doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0090-7. S2CID   134193903.
  5. ↑ Höök, M (2018). "Mapping Chinese supply". Nature Energy. 3 (3): 166–167. Bibcode:2018NatEn...3..166H. doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0103-6. S2CID   169334867.
  6. 1 2 Moomaw, W., P. Burgherr, G. Heath, M. Lenzen, J. Nyboer, A. Verbruggen, 2011: Annex II: Methodology. In IPCC: Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (ref. page 10)
  7. 1 2 Hillebrand, K. 1993. The Greenhouse Effects of Peat Production and Use Compared with Coal, Natural Gas and Wood. Technical Research Centre of Finland Archived 2013-11-04 at the Wayback Machine . Seai.ie
  8. ↑ The CO2 emission factor of peat fuel 106 g CO2/MJ, Archived 2010-07-07 at the Wayback Machine . Imcg.net. Retrieved on 2011-05-09.
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  12. 1 2 3 US EIA, "Carbon intensity", International Energy Statistics, US Energy Information Administration (EIA), retrieved 21 December 2013. Archived page. Public-domain source: 'U.S. Government publications are in the public domain and are not subject to copyright protection. You may use and/or distribute any of our data, files, databases, reports, graphs, charts, and other information products that are on our website or that you receive through our email distribution service. However, if you use or reproduce any of our information products, you should use an acknowledgment, which includes the publication date, such as: "Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (Oct 2008)."' and archived page.
  13. ↑ "CO2 intensity – Map World CO2 Intensity by region – Enerdata". yearbook.enerdata.net.
  14. ↑ "Energy Efficiency Trends & Policies – ODYSSEE-MURE". www.odyssee-indicators.org.
  15. ↑ This section deals with CO2 emissions from energy combustion published in official inventories from the European Environment Agency. The indicators are not expressed under normal climate conditions (i. e. with climate corrections) to comply with the official definition of CO2 inventories. CO2 emissions of final consumers include the emissions of auto producers.
  16. 1 2 Dickie, Gloria (4 April 2022). "Factbox: Key takeaways from the IPCC report on climate change mitigation". Reuters. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
  17. ↑ Calculation of carbon intensity in 2012 kbb.sk, Slovakia
  18. ↑ Bank, European Investment (2 February 2023). "Energy Overview 2023".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  19. ↑ "2030 Climate Target Plan". climate.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  20. ↑ Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (1996). "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories". IPCC. Retrieved 19 August 2012.
  21. ↑ "FCCC/SBSTA/2004/8" (PDF). Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  22. ↑ "Emission Factor Database – Main Page". IPCC. 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2012.
  23. ↑ "Emission Factors". emissionfactors.com. 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2012.
  24. ↑ EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook.eea.europa.eu, 2016, retrieved 13.7.2018
  25. ↑ "EMEP Home". www.emep.int.
  26. ↑ TFEIP, 2008-03-15 tfeip-secretariat
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