Emission intensity

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The carbon intensity of electricity measures the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of electricity produced. The units are in grams of CO2equivalents per kilowatt-hour of electricity. Carbon-intensity-electricity.svg
The carbon intensity of electricity measures the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of electricity produced. The units are in grams of CO₂equivalents per kilowatt-hour of electricity.
Carbon emission intensity of economies in kg of CO2 per unit of GDP (2016) Co2-intensity.png
Carbon emission intensity of economies in kg of CO₂ per unit of GDP (2016)

An emission intensity (also carbon intensity or C.I.) is the emission rate of a given pollutant relative to the intensity of a specific activity, or an industrial production process; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product (GDP). Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted, the number of animals in animal husbandry, on industrial production levels, distances traveled or similar activity data. Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities. In some case the related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are used interchangeably. The jargon used can be different, for different fields/industrial sectors; normally the term "carbon" excludes other pollutants, such as particulate emissions. One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour (CIPK), which is used to compare emissions from different sources of electrical power.

Contents

Methodologies

Different methodologies can be used to assess the carbon intensity of a process. Among the most used methodologies there are:

Different calculation methods can lead to different results. The results can largely vary also for different geographic regions and timeframes (see, in example, how C.I. of electricity varies, for different European countries, and how varied in a few years: from 2009 to 2013 the C.I. of electricity in the European Union fell on average by 20%, [3] So while comparing different values of Carbon Intensity it is important to correctly consider all the boundary conditions (or initial hypotheses) considered for the calculations. For example, Chinese oil fields emit between 1.5 and more than 40 g of CO2e per MJ with about 90% of all fields emitting 1.5–13.5 g CO2e. [4] Such highly skewed carbon intensity patterns necessitate disaggregation of seemingly homogeneous emission activities and proper consideration of many factors for understanding. [5]

An air pollution emission source AirPollutionSource.jpg
An air pollution emission source

Estimating emissions

Emission factors assume a linear relation between the intensity of the activity and the emission resulting from this activity:

Emissionpollutant = Activity * Emission Factorpollutant

Intensities are also used in projecting possible future scenarios such as those used in the IPCC assessments, along with projected future changes in population, economic activity and energy technologies. The interrelations of these variables is treated under the so-called Kaya identity.

The level of uncertainty of the resulting estimates depends significantly on the source category and the pollutant. Some examples:

Electric generation

A literature review of numerous total life cycle energy sources CO2 emissions per unit of electricity generated, conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2011, found that the CO2 emission value, that fell within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies were as follows. [6]

Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source [6]
TechnologyDescription50th percentile
(g CO2-eq/kWhe)
Hydroelectric reservoir4
Wind onshore 12
Nuclear various generation II reactor types16
Biomass various230
Solar thermal parabolic trough 22
Geothermal hot dry rock 45
Solar PV Polycrystalline silicon 46
Natural gas various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing469
Coal various generator types without scrubbing1001
Emission factors of common fuels
Fuel/
Resource		Thermal
g(CO2e)/MJth		Energy Intensity (min & max estimate)
W·hth/W·he		Electric (min & max estimate)
g(CO2)/kW·he
wood 115 [7]
Peat 106 [8]
110 [7]
Coal
Oil 73 [11] 3.40893 [10]
Natural gas
Geothermal
Power 		3~
Uranium
Nuclear power
Hydroelectricity 0.046 (0.020 – 0.137) [9] 15 (6.5 – 44) [9]
Conc. Solar Pwr 40±15#
Photovoltaics 0.33 (0.16 – 0.67) [9] 106 (53–217) [9]
Wind power 0.066 (0.041 – 0.12) [9] 21 (13–40) [9]

Note: 3.6 MJ = megajoule(s) == 1 kW·h = kilowatt-hour(s), thus 1 g/MJ = 3.6 g/kW·h.

Legend: B = Black coal (supercritical)–(new subcritical), Br = Brown coal (new subcritical), cc = combined cycle, oc = open cycle, TL = low-temperature/closed-circuit (geothermal doublet), TH = high-temperature/open-circuit, WL = Light Water Reactors, WH = Heavy Water Reactors, #Educated estimate.

Carbon intensity of regions

Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change. GHG intensity 2000.svg
Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change.
Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982-2011. Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982-2011.png
Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982–2011.
Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982-2011. Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982-2011 (corrected).png
Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982–2011.

The following tables show carbon intensity of GDP in market exchange rates (MER) and purchasing power parities (PPP). Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars. Data are taken from the US Energy Information Administration. [12] Annual data between 1980 and 2009 are averaged over three decades: 1980–89, 1990–99, and 2000–09.

Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in MER [12]
1980–891990–992000–09
Africa 1.131491.207021.03995
Asia & Oceania 0.862560.830150.91721
Central & South America 0.558400.572780.56015
Eurasia NA3.317862.36849
Europe 0.368400.372450.30975
Middle East 0.987791.214751.22310
North America 0.693810.586810.48160
World 0.621700.661200.60725
Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in PPP [12]
1980–891990–992000–09
Africa0.488440.502150.43067
Asia & Oceania0.661870.592490.57356
Central & South America0.300950.307400.30185
EurasiaNA1.431611.02797
Europe0.404130.388970.32077
Middle East0.516410.656900.65723
North America0.667430.566340.46509
World0.544950.548680.48058

In 2009 CO2 intensity of GDP in the OECD countries reduced by 2.9% and amounted to 0.33 kCO2/$05p in the OECD countries. [13] ("$05p" = 2005 US dollars, using purchasing power parities). The USA posted a higher ratio of 0.41 kCO2/$05p while Europe showed the largest drop in CO2 intensity compared to the previous year (−3.7%). CO2 intensity continued to be roughly higher in non-OECD countries. Despite a slight improvement, China continued to post a high CO2 intensity (0.81 kCO2/$05p). CO2 intensity in Asia rose by 2% during 2009 since energy consumption continued to develop at a strong pace. Important ratios were also observed in countries in CIS and the Middle East.

Carbon intensity in Europe

Total CO2 emissions from energy use were 5% below their 1990 level in 2007. [14] Over the period 1990–2007, CO2 emissions from energy use have decreased on average by 0.3%/year although the economic activity (GDP) increased by 2.3%/year. After dropping until 1994 (−1.6%/year), the CO2 emissions have increased steadily (0.4%/year on average) until 2003 and decreased slowly again since (on average by 0.6%/year). Total CO2 emissions per capita decreased from 8.7 t in 1990 to 7.8 t in 2007, that is to say a decrease by 10%. Almost 40% of the reduction in CO2 intensity is due to increased use of energy carriers with lower emission factors. Total CO2 emissions per unit of GDP, the “CO2 intensity”, decreased more rapidly than energy intensity: by 2.3%/year and 1.4%/year, respectively, on average between 1990 and 2007. [15]

However, while the reports from 2007 suggest that the CO2 emissions are going down recent studies find that the global emissions are rapidly escalating. According to the Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change report, conducted by the IPCC, it states that it 2019 the world emissions output was 59 gigatonnes. [16] This shows that global emissions has grown rapidly, increasing by about 2.1% each year compared from the previous decade. [16]

The Commodity Exchange Bratislava (CEB) has calculated carbon intensity for Voluntary Emissions Reduction projects carbon intensity in 2012 to be 0.343 tn/MWh. [17]

According to data from the European Commission, in order to achieve the EU goal of decreasing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990, EU-based energy investment has to double from the previous decade to more than €400 billion annually this decade. This includes the roughly €300 billion in yearly investment required for energy efficiency and the roughly €120 billion required for power networks and renewable energy facilities. [18] [19]

Emission factors for greenhouse gas inventory reporting

One of the most important uses of emission factors is for the reporting of national greenhouse gas inventories under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The so-called Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC have to annually report their national total emissions of greenhouse gases in a formalized reporting format, defining the source categories and fuels that must be included.

The UNFCCC has accepted the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, [20] developed and published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the emission estimation methods that must be used by the parties to the convention to ensure transparency, completeness, consistency, comparability and accuracy of the national greenhouse gas inventories. [21] These IPCC Guidelines are the primary source for default emission factors. Recently IPCC has published the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. These and many more greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on IPCC's Emission Factor Database. [22] Commercially applicable organisational greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on the search engine, EmissionFactors.com. [23]

Particularly for non-CO2e emissions, there is often a high degree of uncertainty associated with these emission factors when applied to individual countries. In general, the use of country-specific emission factors would provide more accurate estimates of emissions than the use of the default emission factors. According to the IPCC, if an activity is a major source of emissions for a country ('key source'), it is 'good practice' to develop a country-specific emission factor for that activity.

Emission factors for air pollutant inventory reporting

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive (2016) require countries to produce annual National Air Pollution Emission Inventories under the provisions of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP).

The European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) Task Force of the European Environment Agency has developed methods to estimate emissions and the associated emission factors for air pollutants, which have been published in the EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook [24] [25] on Emission Inventories and Projections TFEIP. [26]

Intensity targets

Coal, being mostly carbon, emits a lot of CO2 when burnt: it has a high CO2 emission intensity. Natural gas, being methane (CH4), has 4 hydrogen atoms to burn for each one of carbon and thus has medium CO2 emission intensity.

Sources of emission factors

Greenhouse gases

Air pollutants

Well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally

In an August 31, 2018 article by Masnadi et al. which was published by Science , the authors used "open-source oil-sector CI modeling tools" to "model well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally—and to identify major drivers of these emissions." [27] They compared 90 countries with the highest crude oil footprint. [27] [28] The Science study, which was conducted by Stanford University found that Canadian crude oil is the "fourth-most greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive in the world" behind Algeria, Venezuela and Cameroon. [29] [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

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Global Warming Potential (GWP) is an index to measure of how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere. The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regards to their "effectiveness in causing radiative forcing". It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide, which is taken as a reference gas. Therefore, the GWP is one for CO2. For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fossil fuel power station</span> Facility that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon footprint</span> Concept to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from activities or products

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be for example tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal.

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References

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  2. ↑ This method is used by the International Energy Agency in the annual report: CO2 emissions from fuel combustion Archived 2018-03-31 at the Wayback Machine .
  3. ↑ Moro A; Lonza L (2018). "Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 64: 5–14. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012. PMC   6358150 . PMID   30740029.
  4. ↑ Masnadi, M. (2018). "Well-to-refinery emissions and net-energy analysis of China's crude-oil supply". Nature Energy. 3 (3): 220–226. Bibcode:2018NatEn...3..220M. doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0090-7. S2CID   134193903.
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  15. ↑ This section deals with CO2 emissions from energy combustion published in official inventories from the European Environment Agency. The indicators are not expressed under normal climate conditions (i. e. with climate corrections) to comply with the official definition of CO2 inventories. CO2 emissions of final consumers include the emissions of auto producers.
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  25. ↑ "EMEP Home". www.emep.int.
  26. ↑ TFEIP, 2008-03-15 tfeip-secretariat
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