Green economy

Last updated

A green economy is an economy that aims at reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment. [1] [2] [3] It is closely related with ecological economics, but has a more politically applied focus. [4] [5] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report argues "that to be green, an economy must not only be efficient, but also fair. Fairness implies recognizing global and country level equity dimensions, particularly in assuring a Just Transition to an economy that is low-carbon, resource efficient, and socially inclusive." [6]

Contents

A feature distinguishing it from prior economic regimes is the direct valuation of natural capital and ecological services as having economic value (see The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity and Bank of Natural Capital ) and a full cost accounting regime in which costs externalized onto society via ecosystems are reliably traced back to, and accounted for as liabilities of, the entity that does the harm or neglects an asset. [7]

Green sticker and ecolabel practices have emerged as consumer facing indicators of friendliness to the environment and sustainable development. Many industries are starting to adopt these standards as a way to promote their greening practices in a globalizing economy. Also known as sustainability standards, these standards are special rules that guarantee the products bought do not hurt the environment and the people that make them. The number of these standards has grown recently and they can now help build a new, greener economy. They focus on economic sectors like forestry, farming, mining or fishing among others; concentrate on environmental factors like protecting water sources and biodiversity, or reducing greenhouse gas emissions; support social protections and workers’ rights; and home in on specific parts of production processes. [8]

Green economists and economics

Green economics is loosely defined as any theory of economics by which an economy is considered to be component of the ecosystem in which it resides (after Lynn Margulis). A holistic approach to the subject is typical, such that economic ideas are commingled with any number of other subjects, depending on the particular theorist. Proponents of feminism, postmodernism, the environmental movement, peace movement, Green politics, green anarchism and anti-globalization movement have used the term to describe very different ideas, all external to mainstream economics.[ citation needed ]

According to Büscher, the increasing liberalisation of politics since the 1990s has meant that biodiversity must 'legitimise itself' in economic terms. Many non-governmental organisations, governments, banks, companies and so forth have started to claim the right to Define and defend biodiversity and in a distinctly neoliberal manner that subjects the concept's social, political, and ecological dimensions to their value as determined by capitalist markets. [9]

Some economists view green economics as a branch or subfield of more established schools. For instance, it can be regarded as classical economics where the traditional land is generalized to natural capital and has some attributes in common with labor and physical capital (since natural capital assets like rivers directly substitute for man-made ones such as canals). Or, it can be viewed as Marxist economics with nature represented as a form of Lumpenproletariat, an exploited base of non-human workers providing surplus value to the human economy, or as a branch of neoclassical economics in which the price of life for developing vs. developed nations is held steady at a ratio reflecting a balance of power and that of non-human life is very low.[ citation needed ]

An increasing commitment by the UNEP (and national governments such as the UK) to the ideas of natural capital and full cost accounting under the banner 'green economy' could blur distinctions between the schools and redefine them all as variations of "green economics". As of 2010 the Bretton Woods institutions (notably the World Bank [10] and International Monetary Fund (via its "Green Fund" initiative) responsible for global monetary policy have stated a clear intention to move towards biodiversity valuation and a more official and universal biodiversity finance. [11]

The UNEP 2011 Green Economy Report informs that "based on existing studies, the annual financing demand to green the global economy was estimated to be in the range US$1.05 to US$2.59 trillion. To place this demand in perspective, it is about one-tenth of total global investment per year, as measured by global Gross Capital Formation." [6]

At COP26, the European Investment Bank announced a set of just transition common principles agreed upon with multilateral development banks, which also align with the Paris Agreement. The principles refer to focusing financing on the transition to net zero carbon economies, while keeping socioeconomic effects in mind, along with policy engagement and plans for inclusion and gender equality, all aiming to deliver long-term economic transformation. [12] [13]

The African Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, Islamic Development Bank, Council of Europe Development Bank, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, New Development Bank, and Inter-American Development Bank are among the multilateral development banks that have vowed to uphold the principles of climate change mitigation and a Just Transition. The World Bank Group also contributed. [12] [14] [15]

Definition

Karl Burkart defined a green economy as based on six main sectors: [16]

The three pillars of sustainability Sustainable development.svgEnvironmentEquitableSustainableBearable (Social ecology)Viable (Environmental economics)EconomicSocial
The three pillars of sustainability

The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), representing global business, defines the green economy as "an economy in which economic growth and environmental responsibility work together in a mutually reinforcing fashion while supporting progress on social development". [17] [18]

In 2012, the ICC published the Green Economy Roadmap, containing contributions from international experts consulted bi-yearly. The Roadmap represents a comprehensive and multidisciplinary effort to clarify and frame the concept of "green economy". It highlights the role of business in bringing solutions to global challenges. It sets out the following 10 conditions which relate to business/intra-industry and collaborative action for a transition towards a green economy:

Finance and investing

This section is an excerpt from Eco-investing.[ edit ]

Eco-investing or green investing is a form of socially responsible investing where investments are made in companies that support or provide environmentally friendly products and practices. These companies encourage (and often profit from) new technologies that support the transition from carbon dependence to more sustainable alternatives. [19] Green finance is "any structured financial activity that has been created to ensure a better environmental outcome." [20]

As industries' environmental impacts become more apparent, green topics have not only taken center stage in pop-culture, but the financial world as well. In the 1990s, many investors "began to look for those companies that were better than their competitors in terms of managing their environmental impact." While some investors still focus their funds to avoid only "the most egregious polluters," the emphasis for many investors has switched to changing "the way money is used," and using "it in a positive, transformative way to get us from where we are now ultimately to a truly sustainable society." [21] Investment in companies that are damaging to the environment, and investment into the infrastructure that supports those companies detracts from environmentally sustainable investment. [22]

The Global Climate Prosperity Scoreboard – launched by Ethical Markets Media and The Climate Prosperity Alliance to monitor private investments in green companies – estimated that over $1.248 trillion has been invested in solar, wind, geothermal, ocean/hydro and other green sectors since 2007. This number represents investments from North America, China, India, and Brazil, as well at other developing countries. [23]

Green growth

This section is an excerpt from Green growth.[ edit ]
Wind turbine with workers - Boryspil, Ukraine Wind Turbine with Workers - Boryspil - Ukraine (43478128644).jpg
Wind turbine with workers - Boryspil, Ukraine

Green growth is a concept in economic theory and policymaking used to describe paths of economic growth that are environmentally sustainable. [24] It is based on the understanding that as long as economic growth remains a predominant goal, a decoupling of economic growth from resource use and adverse environmental impacts is required. As such, green growth is closely related to the concepts of green economy and low-carbon or sustainable development. A main driver for green growth is the transition towards sustainable energy systems. Advocates of green growth policies argue that well-implemented green policies can create opportunities for employment in sectors such as renewable energy, green agriculture, or sustainable forestry.

Several countries and international organizations, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Bank, and United Nations, [25] have developed strategies on green growth; others, such as the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), are specifically dedicated to the issue. The term green growth has been used to describe national or international strategies, for example as part of economic recovery from the COVID-19 recession, often framed as a green recovery.

Critics of green growth highlight how green growth approaches do not fully account for the underlying economic systems change needed in order to address the climate crisis, biodiversity crisis and other environmental degradation. Critics point instead to alternative frameworks for economic change such as a circular economy, steady-state economy, degrowth, doughnut economics and others. [26]

Approximately 57% of businesses responding to a survey are investing in energy efficiency, 64% in reducing and recycling trash, and 32% in new, less polluting industries and technologies. Roughly 40% of businesses made investments in energy efficiency in 2021. [27] [28]

Ecological measurements

Measuring economic output and progress is done through the use of economic index indicators. Green indices emerged from the need to measure human ecological impact, efficiency sectors like transport, energy, buildings and tourism, as well as the investment flows targeted to areas like renewable energy and cleantech innovation.

  1. 2016 - 2022 Green Score City Index [29] is an ongoing study measuring the anthropogenic impact human activity has on nature.
  2. 2010 - 2018 Global Green Economy Index™ (GGEI), [30] published by consultancy Dual Citizen LLC is in its 6th edition. It measures the green economic performance and perceptions of it in 130 countries along four main dimensions of leadership & climate change, efficiency sectors, markets & investment and the environment.
  3. 2009 - 2013 Circles of Sustainability project scored 5 cities in 5 separate countries.
  4. 2009 - 2012 Green City Index [31] A global study commissioned by Siemens

Ecological footprint measurements are a way to gauge anthropogenic impact and are another standard used by municipal governments. [32]

Green energy issues

Green economies require a transition to green energy generation based on renewable energy to replace fossil fuels as well as energy conservation and efficient energy use. [33] Renewables, like solar energy and wind energy, may eliminate the use of fossil fuels for electricity by 2035 and replace fossil fuel usage altogether by 2050. [34]

The market failure to respond to environmental protection and climate protection needs can be attributed to high external costs and high initial costs for research, development, and marketing of green energy sources and green products. [35] The green economy may need government subsidies as market incentives to motivate firms to invest and produce green products and services. The German Renewable Energy Act, legislations of many other member states of the European Union and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, all provide such market incentives.[ citation needed ] However, other experts [36] argue that green strategies can be highly profitable for corporations that understand the business case for sustainability and can market green products and services beyond the traditional green consumer.

In the United States, it seemed as though the nuclear industry was coming to an end by the mid-1990s. Until 2013, there had been no new nuclear power facilities built since 1977. One reason was due to the economic reliance on fossil fuel-based energy sources. Additionally, there was a public fear of nuclear energy due to the Three Mile Island accident and the Chernobyl disaster. [37] The Bush administration passed the 2005 Energy Bill that granted the nuclear industry around 10 million dollars to encourage research and development efforts. [38] With the increasing threat of climate change, nuclear energy has been highlighted as an option to work to decarbonize the atmosphere and reverse climate change. [39] Nuclear power forces environmentalists and citizens around the world to weigh the pro and cons of using nuclear power as a renewable energy source. The controversial nature of nuclear power has the potential to split the green economy movement into two branches— anti-nuclear and pro-nuclear.

According to a European climate survey, 63% of EU residents, 59% of Britons, 50% of Americans and 60% of Chinese respondents are in favor of switching to renewable energy. As of 2021, 18% of Americans are in favor of natural gas as a source of energy. For Britons and EU citizens nuclear energy is a more popular energy alternative. [40]

After the COVID-19 pandemic, Eastern European and Central Asian businesses fall behind their Southern European counterparts in terms of the average quality of their green management practices, notably in terms of specified energy consumption and emissions objectives. [41] [42]

External variables, such as consumer pressure and energy taxes, are more relevant than firm-level features, such as size and age, in influencing the quality of green management practices. [41] [42] Firms with less financial limitations and stronger green management practices are more likely to invest in a bigger variety of green initiatives. Energy efficiency investments are good to both the bottom line and the environment. [41] [42]

The shift to greener energy and the adoption of more climate regulations are expected to have a 30% positive impact on businesses, mostly through new business prospects, and a 30% negative impact, according to businesses that took part in a survey in 2022. A little over 40% of the same businesses do not anticipate the transition to greener alternatives to alter their operations. [43] [44] [45]

Criticism

A number of organisations and individuals have criticised aspects of the 'Green Economy', particularly the mainstream conceptions of it based on using price mechanisms to protect nature, arguing that this will extend corporate control into new areas from forestry to water. Venezuelan professor Edgardo Lander says that the UNEP's report, Towards a Green Economy, [46] while well-intentioned "ignores the fact that the capacity of existing political systems to establish regulations and restrictions to the free operation of the markets – even when a large majority of the population call for them – is seriously limited by the political and financial power of the corporations." [47]

Ulrich Hoffmann, in a paper for UNCTAD also says that the focus on Green Economy and "green growth" in particular, "based on an evolutionary (and often reductionist) approach will not be sufficient to cope with the complexities of [[climate change]]" and "may rather give much false hope and excuses to do nothing really fundamental that can bring about a U-turn of global greenhouse gas emissions. [48] Clive Spash, an ecological economist, has criticised the use of economic growth to address environmental losses, [49] and argued that the Green Economy, as advocated by the UN, is not a new approach at all and is actually a diversion from the real drivers of environmental crisis. [50] He has also criticised the UN's project on the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity (TEEB), [51] and the basis for valuing ecosystems services in monetary terms. [52]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable development</span> Mode of human development

Sustainable development is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural capital</span> Worlds stock of natural resources

Natural capital is the world's stock of natural resources, which includes geology, soils, air, water and all living organisms. Some natural capital assets provide people with free goods and services, often called ecosystem services. All of these underpin our economy and society, and thus make human life possible.

Environmental finance is a field within finance that employs market-based environmental policy instruments to improve the ecological impact of investment strategies. The primary objective of environmental finance is to regress the negative impacts of climate change through pricing and trading schemes. The field of environmental finance was established in response to the poor management of economic crises by government bodies globally. Environmental finance aims to reallocate a businesses resources to improve the sustainability of investments whilst also retaining profit margins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological economics</span> Interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems

Ecological economics, bioeconomics, ecolonomy, eco-economics, or ecol-econ is both a transdisciplinary and an interdisciplinary field of academic research addressing the interdependence and coevolution of human economies and natural ecosystems, both intertemporally and spatially. By treating the economy as a subsystem of Earth's larger ecosystem, and by emphasizing the preservation of natural capital, the field of ecological economics is differentiated from environmental economics, which is the mainstream economic analysis of the environment. One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought, with ecological economists emphasizing strong sustainability and rejecting the proposition that physical (human-made) capital can substitute for natural capital.

Overconsumption describes a situation where a consumer overuses their available goods and services to where they can't, or don't want to, replenish or reuse them. In microeconomics, this may be described as the point where the marginal cost of a consumer is greater than their marginal utility. The term overconsumption is quite controversial in use and does not necessarily have a single unifying definition. When used to refer to natural resources to the point where the environment is negatively affected, it is synonymous with the term overexploitation. However, when used in the broader economic sense, overconsumption can refer to all types of goods and services, including manmade ones, e.g. "the overconsumption of alcohol can lead to alcohol poisoning". Overconsumption is driven by several factors of the current global economy, including forces like consumerism, planned obsolescence, economic materialism, and other unsustainable business models and can be contrasted with sustainable consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Business action on climate change</span> Range of activities by businesses relating to climate change

Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to climate change, and to influencing political decisions on climate change-related regulation, such as the Kyoto Protocol. Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of climate change, especially in the United States, through lobbying of government and funding of climate change deniers. Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of climate change, through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures.

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values. Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.

Green jobs are, according to the United Nations Environment Program, "work in agricultural, manufacturing, research and development (R&D), administrative, and service activities that contribute(s) substantially to preserving or restoring environmental quality. Specifically, but not exclusively, this includes jobs that help to protect ecosystems and biodiversity; reduce energy, materials, and water consumption through high efficiency strategies; de-carbonize the economy; and minimize or altogether avoid generation of all forms of waste and pollution." The environmental sector has the dual benefit of mitigating environmental challenges as well as helping economic growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainability</span> Goal of people safely co-existing on Earth

Sustainability is a social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long time. Definitions of this term are disputed and have varied with literature, context, and time. Experts sometimes describe sustainability as having three dimensions : environmental, economic, and social, or people, planet, and profit and many publications emphasize the environmental dimension. Many experts have also expanded the dimensions to account for notable aspects of sustainability, for example future generations or health, thereby using a quadruple bottom line (QBL). In everyday use, sustainability often focuses on countering major environmental problems, including climate change, loss of biodiversity, loss of ecosystem services, land degradation, and air and water pollution. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels. A related concept is sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal, while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green growth</span> Economic growth that is environmentally sustainable

Green growth is a concept in economic theory and policymaking used to describe paths of economic growth that are environmentally sustainable. It is based on the understanding that as long as economic growth remains a predominant goal, a decoupling of economic growth from resource use and adverse environmental impacts is required. As such, green growth is closely related to the concepts of green economy and low-carbon or sustainable development. A main driver for green growth is the transition towards sustainable energy systems. Advocates of green growth policies argue that well-implemented green policies can create opportunities for employment in sectors such as renewable energy, green agriculture, or sustainable forestry.

<i>The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity</i>

The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) was a study led by Pavan Sukhdev from 2007 to 2011. It is an international initiative to draw attention to the global economic benefits of biodiversity. Its objective is to highlight the growing cost of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and to draw together expertise from the fields of science, economics and policy to enable practical actions. TEEB aims to assess, communicate and mainstream the urgency of actions through its five deliverables—D0: science and economic foundations, policy costs and costs of inaction, D1: policy opportunities for national and international policy-makers, D2: decision support for local administrators, D3: business risks, opportunities and metrics and D4: citizen and consumer ownership.

A Green bond is a fixed-income financial instruments (bond) which is used to fund projects that have positive environmental and/or climate benefits. They follow the Green Bond Principles stated by the International Capital Market Association (ICMA), and the proceeds from the issuance of which are to be used for the pre-specified types of projects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Europe</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Europe related to climate change

Climate change has resulted in an increase in temperature of 2.3 °C (2022) in Europe compared to pre-industrial levels. Europe is the fastest warming continent in the world. Europe's climate is getting warmer due to anthropogenic activity. According to international climate experts, global temperature rise should not exceed 2 °C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of climate change; without reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, this could happen before 2050. Climate change has implications for all regions of Europe, with the extent and nature of impacts varying across the continent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate finance</span> Type of investment in the context of climate action

Climate finance is an umbrella term for funding investments in the area of climate change mitigation and adaptation. In a wider sense, the term refers to all financial flows relating to climate change mitigation and adaptation. In a narrower sense it only refers to transfers of public money from developed countries to developing countries. This would be in light of their obligations under the UN Climate Convention to provide new and additional financial resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pavan Sukhdev</span> Indian environmental economist (born 1960)

Pavan Sukhdev is an Indian environmental economist whose field of studies include green economy and international finance. He was the Special Adviser and Head of UNEP's Green Economy Initiative, a major UN project suite to demonstrate that greening of economies is not a burden on growth but rather a new engine for growing wealth, increasing decent employment, and reducing persistent poverty. Pavan was also the Study Leader for the ground breaking TEEB study commissioned by G8+5 and hosted by UNEP. Under his leadership, TEEB sized the global problem of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation in economic and human welfare terms, and proposed solutions targeted at policy-makers, administrators, businesses and citizens. TEEB presented its widely acclaimed Final Report suite at the UN meeting by Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Nagoya, Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue economy</span> Economy based on exploitation and preservation of the marine environment

Blue economy is a term in economics relating to the exploitation, preservation and regeneration of the marine environment. Its scope of interpretation varies among organizations. However, the term is generally used in the scope of international development when describing a sustainable development approach to coastal resources. This can include a wide range of economic sectors, from the more conventional fisheries, aquaculture, maritime transport, coastal, marine and maritime tourism, or other traditional uses, to more emergent activities such as coastal renewable energy, marine ecosystem services, seabed mining, and bioprospecting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clive Spash</span> Ecological economist

Clive L. Spash is an ecological economist. He currently holds the Chair of Public Policy and Governance at Vienna University of Economics and Business, appointed in 2010. He is also Editor-in-Chief of the academic journal Environmental Values.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Green Deal</span> Plan to transform the EU into a climate-neutral economy by 2050

The European Green Deal, approved in 2020, is a set of policy initiatives by the European Commission with the overarching aim of making the European Union (EU) climate neutral in 2050. The plan is to review each existing law on its climate merits, and also introduce new legislation on the circular economy, building renovation, biodiversity, farming and innovation.

Green recovery packages are proposed environmental, regulatory, and fiscal reforms to rebuild prosperity in the wake of an economic crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic or the Global Financial Crisis (GFC). They pertain to fiscal measures that intend to recover economic growth while also positively benefitting the environment, including measures for renewable energy, efficient energy use, nature-based solutions, sustainable transport, green innovation and green jobs, amongst others.

Sustainable finance is the set of financial regulations, standards, norms and products that pursue an environmental objective. It allows the financial system to connect with the economy and its populations by financing its agents while maintaining a growth objective. The long-standing concept was promoted with the adoption of the Paris Climate Agreement, which stipulates that parties must make "finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development." In addition, sustainable finance had already a key role to play in the European Green Deal and in other EU International agreements, but since the COVID-19 pandemic its role is even more important.

References

  1. ↑ Loiseau, Eleonore; Saikku, Laura; Antikainen, Riina; Droste, Nils; Hansjürgens, Bernd; Pitkänen, Kati; Leskinen, Pekka; Kuikman, Peter; Thomsen, Marianne (2016). "Green economy and related concepts: An overview". Journal of Cleaner Production . 139: 361–371. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.08.024.
  2. ↑ Georgeson, Lucien; Maslin, Mark; Poessinouw, Martyn (2017). "The global green economy: a review of concepts, definitions, measurement methodologies and their interactions". Geo: Geography and Environment. 4 (1). doi: 10.1002/geo2.36 .
  3. ↑ Telukdarie, Arnesh; Katsumbe, Tatenda; Mahure, Hlobisile; Murulane, Khuliso (2024). "Exploring the green economy – A systems thinking modelling approach". Journal of Cleaner Production . 436: 140611. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140611 .
  4. ↑ "United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)". Archived from the original on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  5. ↑ Lynn R. Kahle, Eda Gurel-Atay, Eds (2014). Communicating Sustainability for the Green Economy. New York: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN   978-0-7656-3680-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. 1 2 UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, www.unep.org/greeneconomy
  7. ↑ Runnals, D. (2011) “Environment and economy: joined at the hip or just strange bedfellows?”. S.A.P.I.EN.S.4 (1)
  8. ↑ "About UNFSS". UNFSS. Retrieved 2021-03-03.
  9. ↑ Death, C. (2013). Critical Environmental Politics. Interventions. Taylor & Francis. p. 17-19. ISBN   978-1-134-68406-9 . Retrieved 29 May 2023.
  10. ↑ "World Bank to lead economic push on nature protection". BBC News. 28 October 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  11. ↑ "World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund". www.cbd.int. 14 March 2019.
  12. 1 2 Bank, European Investment (2022-07-06). EIB Group Sustainability Report 2021. European Investment Bank. ISBN   978-92-861-5237-5.
  13. ↑ "ENER - Item". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-07-27.
  14. ↑ "Multilateral Development Banks". African Development Bank - Building today, a better Africa tomorrow. 2019-04-12. Retrieved 2022-07-27.
  15. ↑ "Collective Climate Ambition — A Joint Statement at COP26 by the Multilateral Development Banks". Asian Development Bank. 2021-11-05. Retrieved 2022-07-27.
  16. ↑ "What is Green Economy? Here's a Simple Explanation". Sociology Group: Sociology and Other Social Sciences Blog. 2020-06-30. Retrieved 2021-06-02.
  17. ↑ "Green Economy Roadmap" (PDF). International Chamber of Commerce. 2012. p. 10. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  18. ↑ UNDESA, (2012). A guidebook to the Green Economy. Archived 2013-01-27 at the Wayback Machine
  19. ↑ Henshaw, Mark (2010). "Eco Investor Guide" (PDF). Eco Investor Guide, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  20. ↑ "What is green finance and why is it important?". World Economic Forum. 9 November 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2020-12-28.
  21. ↑ Keane, Robert F. (1 November 2009). "The Green Advisor: SRI & Green Investing Grow Up". Investment Advisor. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  22. ↑ "Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change". www.ipcc.ch. Archived from the original on 2022-08-02. Retrieved 2022-04-04.
  23. ↑ "New Global Climate Prosperity Scoreboard Finds Over $1 Trillion Invested in Green Since 2007". Green Money Journal. 2010. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  24. ↑ Green Growth That Works: Natural Capital Policy and Finance Mechanisms Around the World. Island Press. 2019. ISBN   9781642830033.
  25. ↑ Allan, Bentley B.; Meckling, Jonas O. (2021). "Creative Learning and Policy Ideas: The Global Rise of Green Growth". Perspectives on Politics. 21 (2): 443–461. doi:10.1017/S1537592721000037. ISSN   1537-5927. S2CID   234862347.
  26. ↑ "Green Growth vs Degrowth: Are We Missing the Point".
  27. ↑ Bank, European Investment (2022-11-08). EIB Investment Survey 2022 - EU overview. European Investment Bank. ISBN   978-92-861-5397-6.
  28. ↑ "Press corner". European Commission. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
  29. ↑ "City index scoreboard - Canada" . Retrieved 3 May 2022.
  30. ↑ "2016 Global Green Economy Index" (PDF). Dual Citizen LLC. 19 September 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
  31. ↑ "Home - English - Siemens Global Website". Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  32. ↑ http://www.fcm.ca/Documents/reports/Ecological_Footprints_of_Canadian_Municipalities_and_Regions_EN.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  33. ↑ Aswathanarayana, U.; Harikrishnan, T.; Kadher-Mohien, T.S. (2010). Green Energy: Technology, Economics and Policy. A Balkema book. CRC Press. p. 1-2. ISBN   978-0-203-84146-4 . Retrieved 29 May 2023.
  34. ↑ Vetter, David. "How Renewables Could Kill Off Fossil Fuel Electricity By 2035: New Report". Forbes. Retrieved 2021-11-08.
  35. ↑ (Reinhardt, 1999; King and Lenox, 2002; Wagner, 203; Wagner, et al., 2005)
  36. ↑ Amory Lovins, Hunter Lovins, and Paul Hawken, authors of Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution , and Jay Conrad Levinson and Shel Horowitz, authors of Guerrilla Marketing Goes Green
  37. ↑ "Nuclear Power in the USA - World Nuclear Association". www.world-nuclear.org. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
  38. ↑ Kessler, Günter (2012), "The Development of Nuclear Energy in the World", Sustainable and Safe Nuclear Fission Energy, Power Systems, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 1–13, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11990-3_1, ISBN   978-3-642-11989-7 , retrieved 2021-01-29
  39. ↑ "Which Technology Will Most Impact The Future Of Energy? 18 Experts Share Their Insights". Disruptor Daily. 2019-06-29. Retrieved 2021-01-29.
  40. ↑ "2021-2022 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 3: Europeans sceptical about successfully reducing carbon emissions by 2050, American and Chinese respondents more confident". EIB.org. Retrieved 2022-04-04.
  41. 1 2 3 Bank, European Investment (2022-05-18). Business resilience in the pandemic and beyond: Adaptation, innovation, financing and climate action from Eastern Europe to Central Asia. European Investment Bank. ISBN   978-92-861-5086-9.
  42. 1 2 3 "Pathways to Sustainable Energy" (PDF).
  43. ↑ European Investment Bank.; Ipsos Public Affairs. (2022-11-08). EIB Investment Survey 2022 - EU overview. European Investment Bank. doi:10.2867/488028. ISBN   978-92-861-5397-6.
  44. ↑ Kuik, Friderike; Morris, Richard; Sun, Yiqiao (2022-06-22). "The impact of climate change on activity and prices – insights from a survey of leading firms".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  45. ↑ "Green business opportunities and net zero | McKinsey". www.mckinsey.com. Retrieved 2022-11-28.
  46. ↑ "Green Economy - Green Economy Report". UNEP. 2011-11-16. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
  47. ↑ "The Green Economy: the Wolf in Sheep's clothing". Transnational Institute. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  48. ↑ U.Hoffmann (2011), "Some reflections on climate change, green growth illusions and development space"
  49. ↑ Spash, C.L. 2007. Fallacies of economic growth in addressing environmental losses: Human induced climatic change. Newsletter of the Australia New Zealand Society for Ecological Economics (ANZSEE), no. May, 2-4 Archived 2013-11-03 at the Wayback Machine
  50. ↑ "EconPapers: Green Economy, Red Herring" . Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  51. ↑ Spash, Clive L. (2011-05-01). "Editorial: Terrible Economics, Ecosystems and Banking". Environmental Values. 20 (2): 141–145. doi:10.3197/096327111X12997574391562. S2CID   153885129.
  52. ↑ Spash, C.L. 2008. How much is that ecosystem in the window? The one with the bio-diverse trail. Environmental Values, vol. 17, no. 2, 259-284 Archived 2014-11-27 at the Wayback Machine
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.