Autarky

Last updated

Autarky is the characteristic of self-sufficiency, usually applied to societies, communities, states, and their economic systems. [1]

Contents

Autarky as an ideology or economic approach has been attempted by a range of political ideologies and movements, particularly leftist ones like African socialism, mutualism, war communism, [2] communalism, swadeshi, syndicalism (especially anarcho-syndicalism), and left-wing populism, generally in an effort to build alternative economic structures or to control resources against structures a particular movement views as hostile. Conservative, centrist and nationalist movements have also adopted autarky, generally on a more limited scale, to develop a particular industry, to gain independence from other national entities or to preserve part of an existing social order.

Proponents of autarky have argued for national self-sufficiency to reduce foreign economic, political and cultural influences, as well as to promote international peace. [3] Economists are generally supportive of free trade. [4] There is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth [5] and economic stability. [6]

Autarky may be a policy of a state or some other type of entity when it seeks to be self-sufficient as a whole, but it also can be limited to a narrow field such as possession of a key raw material. Some countries have a policy of autarky with respect to foodstuffs (as South Korea), and water for national-security reasons. [7] Autarky can result from economic isolation or from external circumstances in which a state or other entity reverts to localized production when it lacks currency or excess production to trade with the outside world. [8] [9]

Etymology

The word autarky is from the Ancient Greek word Greek : αὐτάρκεια, which means "self-sufficiency" (derived from αὐτο-, "self", and ἀρκέω, "to suffice"). In Stoicism the concept of autarky represents independence from anything external, including independence from personal relationships, so as to immune one from vagaries of fortune. The Stoic sage is autarkic by being dependent only on his own virtue. [10] In Epicureanism the concept of autarky represents having the fewest possible requirements for living a life of pleasure, free of pain (aponia). [11]

Lexico, whose content is provided by the same publisher as that of the Oxford English Dictionary, says that autarky is a variant spelling of and pronounced the same as autarchy [12] and that autarchy is another term for autocracy . [13]

History

Ancient and medieval

Early state societies that can be regarded as autarkic include nomadic pastoralism and palace economy, though over time these tend towards becoming less self-sufficient and more interconnected. The late Bronze Age, for example, saw formerly self-sufficient palace economies rely more heavily on trade, which may have been a contributing factor to the eventual Bronze Age Collapse when multiple crises hit those systems at once. After that collapse, the ideal of autarkeia formed a part of emerging Greek political culture, emphasizing economic self-sufficiency [14] and local self-rule.

The populist Chinese philosophy of Agriculturalism, prominent in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, supported egalitarian, self-sufficient [15] societies as an antidote to rampant war and corruption.

During the Late Roman Empire, some rebellions and communities pursued autarky as a reaction both to upheaval and to counter imperial power. A prominent example is the Bacaude, who repeatedly rebelled against the empire and "formed self-governing communities" with their own [16] internal economy and coinage.

Medieval communes combined an attempt at overall economic self-sufficiency through the use of common lands and resources with the use of mutual defense pacts, neighborhood assemblies and organized militias to preserve local autonomy [17] against the depredations of the local nobility. Many of these communes later became trading powers such as the Hanseatic League. In some cases, communal village economies maintained their own debt system [18] as part of a self-sufficient economy and to avoid reliance on possibly hostile aristocratic or business interests. The trend toward "local self-sufficiency" increased [19] after the Black Plague, initially as a reaction to the impact of the epidemic and later as a way for communes and city states to maintain power against the nobility. [20]

There is considerable debate about how autarkic cultures that resisted the spread of early capitalism were. Golden Age pirate communities have been dubbed both heavily autarkic societies where [21] "the marauders...lived in small, self-contained democracies" and as an "anti-autarky" due [22] to their dependence on raiding.

While rarer among imperial states, some autarkies did occur during specific time periods. The Ming dynasty, during its earlier, more isolationist period, kept a closed economy that prohibited outside trade and focused on centralized distribution of goods produced in localized farms and workshops. [23] A hierarchy of bureaucrats oversaw [24] the distribution of these resources from central depots, including a massive one located in the Forbidden City. That depot was, at the time, the largest logistical base in the world. The Incan Empire also maintained a system of society-wide autarky based on community levies of specific goods and "supply on command".

19th and early 20th centuries

In some areas of the antebellum South, the enslaved and free black populations forged self-sufficient economies in an effort to avoid reliance on the larger economy controlled by the planter aristocracy. In eastern North Carolina maroon communities, often based in swampy areas, used a combination of agriculture and fishing to forge a "hidden economy" and secure survival. [25] The relative self-reliance of these maritime African-American populations provided the basis for a strongly abolitionist political culture [26] that made increasingly radical demands after the start of the Civil War. Due to tense relations with some Union commanders and political factions during and after that war, these communities "focused their organizing efforts on developing their own institutions, their own sense of self-reliance, and their own political strength". [27]

Autarkic ambitions [28] can also be seen in the populist backlash to the exploitations of free trade in the late 19th-century and in many early utopian socialist movements. Mutual aid societies like the Grange and Sovereigns of Industry attempted to set up self-sufficient economies (with varying degrees of success) in an effort to be less dependent on what they saw as an exploitative economic system and to generate more power to push for reforms.

Early socialist movements used these autarkic efforts to build their base with institutions like the Bourse de travail, socialist canteens and food assistance. These played a major role in securing workers' loyalty and building those parties into increasingly powerful institutions (especially in Europe) throughout the late 19th and early 20th-centuries. Through these cooperatives, [29] "workers bought Socialist bread and Socialist shoes, drank Socialist beer, arranged for Socialist vacations and obtained a Socialist education."

Local and regional farming autarkies in many areas of Africa and Southeast Asia were displaced [30] by European colonial administrations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who sought to push smallholder villages into larger plantations that, while less productive, they could more easily control. The self-sufficient communities and societies ended by colonialism were later cited as a useful example by African anarchists [31] in the late 20th century.

Communist movements embraced or dismissed autarky as a goal at different times. In her survey of anarchism in the late 1800s, Voltairine De Cleyre summarized the autarkic goals of early anarchist socialists and communists as "small, independent, self-resourceful, freely-operating communes". [32] In particular, Peter Kropotkin advocated local and regional autarky integrating agriculture and industry, instead of the international division of labor. [33] His work repeatedly held up communities "that needed neither aid or protection from without" as a more resilient model. [34]

Some socialist communities like Charles Fourier's phalansteries strove for self-sufficiency. The early USSR in the Russian Civil War strove for a self-sufficient economy with war communism, [35] but later pursued international trade vigorously under the New Economic Policy. However, while the Soviet government during the latter period encouraged international trade, it also permitted and even encouraged local autarkies in many peasant villages. [36]

Sometimes leftist groups clashed over autarkic projects. During the Spanish Civil War, the anarcho-syndicalist CNT and the socialist UGT had created economic cooperatives in the Levante that they claimed were "managing the economic life of the region independent of the government". [37] But communist factions responded by cracking down on these cooperatives in an attempt to place economic control back in the hands of the central government.

Right-wing totalitarian governments that have also strived for autarky, developing national industry and imposing high tariffs but have crushed other autarky movements. In 1921, Italian fascists attacked existing left-wing autarkic projects at the behest of large landowners, destroying roughly 119 labor chambers, 107 cooperatives and 83 peasant offices that year alone. [38] Nazi Germany under economics minister Hjalmar Schacht, and later Walther Funk, still pursued major international trade, albeit under a different system, to escape the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, satisfy business elites and prepare for war. The regime would continue to conduct trade, including with countries like the United States, including connections with major companies like IBM and Coca-Cola. [39]

After World War II

Economic self-sufficiency was pursued as a goal by some members of the Non-Aligned Movement, such as India under Jawaharlal Nehru [40] and Tanzania, [41] under the ideology of Ujamaa [42] and Swadeshi. That was partly an effort to escape the economic domination of both the United States and the Soviet Union while modernizing the countries' infrastructure. In the case of Francoist Spain, it was both the effect of international sanctions after the Spanish Civil War (1939) and the Second World War and the totalitarian nationalist ideology of Falange. Post-war famine and misery lasted longer than in war-ravaged Europe. It was not until the capitalist reforms of 1950s with the approach to the United States that the Spanish economy recovered the levels of 1935 launching into the Spanish Miracle.

Small-scale autarkies were sometimes used by the Civil Rights Movement, such as in the case of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Boycotters set up their own self-sufficient system of cheap or free transit to allow black residents to get to work and avoid using the then-segregated public systems in a successful effort to bring political pressure.

Autarkic efforts for food sovereignty also formed part of the civil rights movement. In the late 60s activist Fannie Lou Hamer was one of the founders of the Freedom Farms Cooperative, an effort [43] to redistribute economic power and build self-sufficiency in Black communities. "When you've got 400 quarts of greens and gumbo soup canned for the winter, nobody can push you around or tell you what to say or do," Hamer summarized as the rationale for the cooperative. The efforts were extensively targeted [44] by segregationist authorities and the far-right with measures ranging from economic pressure to outright violence.

After World War II, Autonomist efforts in Europe embraced local autarkic projects in an effort to craft anti-authoritarian left-wing spaces, especially influencing the social center and squatters' rights movements. Such efforts remain a common feature of Autonomist and anarchist movements on the continent today. The Micropolis social centre in Greece, for example, has gyms, restaurants, bars, meeting space and free distribution of food and resources. [45]

Around 1970, the Black Panther Party moved away from orthodox communist internationalism towards "intercommunalism", a term coined by Huey P. Newton, "to retain a grasp on the local when the rest of radical thought seemed to be moving global". [46] Intercommunalism drew from left-wing autarkic projects like free medical clinics and breakfast programs, "explicitly articulated as attempts to fill a void left by the failure of the federal government to provide resources as basic as food to black communities". [47]

In Murray Bookchin's Communalist ideal, he wrote that in a more liberated future "every community would approximate local or regional autarky". [48]

The influential 1983 anarchist book bolo'bolo, by Hans Widmer, advocated the use of autarky among its utopian anti-capitalist communes (known as bolos), asserting "the power of the State is based on food supply. Only on the basis of a certain degree of autarky can the bolos enter into a network of exchange without being exploited". [49] [50] Widmer theorized that through "tactical autarky" [51] such communes would be able to prevent the return of oppressive structures and a money economy. [52]

Autarkic efforts to counter the forcible privatization of public resources and maintain local self-sufficiency also formed a key part of alter-globalization efforts. The Cochabamba Water War had Bolivians successfully oppose the privatization of their water system to keep the resource in public hands. [53]

Contemporary

Today, national economic autarkies are relatively rare. A commonly-cited example is North Korea, based on the government ideology of Juche (self-reliance), which is concerned with maintaining its domestic localized economy in the face of its isolation. However, even North Korea has extensive trade with Russia, China, Syria, Iran, Vietnam, India and many countries in Europe and Africa. North Korea had to import food during a widespread famine in the 1990s.

Some would consider a modern example at a societal level is Rojava, the autonomous northern region of Syria. Despite a key alliance with the United States, supporters consider them largely cut off from international trade, facing multiple enemies, and striving for a society based on communalism, Rojava's government and constitution emphasize economic self-sufficiency [54] directed by neighborhood and village councils. Rojavan society and economics are influenced by Bookchin's ideas, including the emphasis on local and regional self governance. Under changes made in 2012 property and business belong to those who live in or use it towards these goals, while infrastructure, land and major resources are commons run by local and regional councils. Bookchin however was concerned about the effects of isolationist autarky in respect to the closing off of a community and therefore always stressed the need for a balance between localism and globalism. [55]

An example of a small, but true autarky is North Sentinel Island, whose native inhabitants refuse all contact with outsiders and live completely self-sufficient lives.

An example of a contemporary effort at localized autarky, incorporating the concept's history from black nationalism, Ujamaa, African-American socialism and the civil rights movement, is Cooperation Jackson, [56] a movement aimed at creating a self-sufficient black working class economy in Jackson, Mississippi. The movement has aimed [57] to secure land and build self-sufficient cooperatives and workplaces "to democratically transform the political economy of the city" and push back against gentrification. Cooperation Jackson also saw a gain in electoral political power when its involvement proved pivotal to the 2013 mayoral election of Chokwe Lumumba and the 2017 election of his son, Chokwe Antar Lumumba.

See also

Related Research Articles

Libertarian socialism is an anti-authoritarian and anti-capitalist political current that emphasises self-governance and workers' self-management. It is contrasted from other forms of socialism by its rejection of state ownership and from other forms of libertarianism by its rejection of private property. Broadly defined, it includes schools of both anarchism and Marxism, as well as other tendencies that oppose the state and capitalism.

Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes the economic, political, and social theories and movements associated with the implementation of such systems. Social ownership can take various forms, including public, community, collective, cooperative, or employee. Traditionally, socialism is on the left wing of the political spectrum. Types of socialism vary based on the role of markets and planning in resource allocation, and the structure of management in organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Import substitution industrialization</span> Trade and economic policy

Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is a trade and economic policy that advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production. It is based on the premise that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign dependency through the local production of industrialized products. The term primarily refers to 20th-century development economics policies, but it has been advocated since the 18th century by economists such as Friedrich List and Alexander Hamilton.

Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by a state entity, and from collective or cooperative property, which is owned by one or more non-governmental entities. John Locke described private property as a Natural Law principle arguing that when a person mixes their labor with nature, the labor enters the object conferring individual ownership.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Murray Bookchin</span> American social theorist (1921–2006)

Murray Bookchin was an American social theorist, author, orator, historian, and political philosopher. Influenced by G. W. F. Hegel, Karl Marx, and Peter Kropotkin, he was a pioneer in the environmental movement. Bookchin formulated and developed the theory of social ecology and urban planning within anarchist, libertarian socialist, and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books covering topics in politics, philosophy, history, urban affairs, and social ecology. Among the most important were Our Synthetic Environment (1962), Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1971), The Ecology of Freedom (1982), and Urbanization Without Cities (1987). In the late 1990s, he became disenchanted with what he saw as an increasingly apolitical "lifestylism" of the contemporary anarchist movement, stopped referring to himself as an anarchist, and founded his own libertarian socialist ideology called "communalism", which seeks to reconcile and expand Marxist, syndicalist, and anarchist thought.

Anarchism in Spain has historically gained some support and influence, especially before Francisco Franco's victory in the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, when it played an active political role and is considered the end of the golden age of classical anarchism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Progressive utilization theory</span> Socioeconomic and political philosophy

The Progressive utilization theory (PROUT) is a socioeconomic and political philosophy created by the Indian philosopher and spiritual leader Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar. He first conceived of PROUT in 1959. Its proponents (Proutists) claim that it exposes and overcomes the limitations of capitalism, communism and mixed economy. Since its genesis, PROUT has had an economically progressive approach, aiming to improve social development in the world. It is in line with Sarkar's Neohumanist values which aim to provide "proper care" to every being on the planet, including humans, animals and plants.

Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism. Anarchists are anti-authoritarian and anti-capitalist, with anarchism usually referred to as a form of libertarian socialism, i.e. a stateless system of socialism. Anarchists support personal property and oppose capital concentration, interest, monopoly, private ownership of productive property such as the means of production, profit, rent, usury and wage slavery which are viewed as inherent to capitalism.

Left-libertarianism, also known as left-wing libertarianism, is a political philosophy and type of libertarianism that stresses both individual freedom and social equality. Left-libertarianism represents several related yet distinct approaches to political and social theory. Its classical usage refers to anti-authoritarian varieties of left-wing politics such as anarchism, especially social anarchism, communalism, and libertarian Marxism, collectively termed libertarian socialism. A portion of the left wing of the green movement, including adherents of Murray Bookchin's social ecology, are also generally considered left-libertarian.

System D is a manner of responding to challenges that require one to have the ability to think quickly, to adapt, and to improvise when getting a job done. The term gained wider popularity in the United States after appearing in the 2006 publication of Anthony Bourdain's The Nasty Bits. Bourdain references finding the term in Nicolas Freeling's memoir, The Kitchen, about Freeling's years as a Grand Hotel cook in France.

The following is a list of terms specific to anarchists. Anarchism is a political and social movement which advocates voluntary association in opposition to authoritarianism and hierarchy.

Self-sustainability and self-sufficiency are overlapping states of being in which a person, being, or system needs little or no help from, or interaction with others. Self-sufficiency entails the self being enough, and a self-sustaining entity can maintain self-sufficiency indefinitely. These states represent types of personal or collective autonomy. A self-sufficient economy is one that requires little or no trade with the outside world and is called an autarky.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eco-socialism</span> Ideology merging aspects of socialism with green politics, ecology and alter-globalization

Eco-socialism is an ideology merging aspects of socialism with that of green politics, ecology and alter-globalization or anti-globalization. Eco-socialists generally believe that the expansion of the capitalist system is the cause of social exclusion, poverty, war and environmental degradation through globalization and imperialism, under the supervision of repressive states and transnational structures.

Agrarian socialism is a political ideology that promotes social ownership of agrarian and agricultural production as opposed to private ownership. Agrarian socialism involves equally distributing agricultural land among collectivized peasant villages. Many agrarian socialist movements have tended to be rural, locally focused, and traditional. Governments and political parties seeking agrarian socialist policies have existed throughout the world, in regions including Europe, Asia, North America, Latin America, and Africa.

Workers' self-management, also referred to as labor management and organizational self-management, is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organization's workforce. Self-management is a defining characteristic of socialism, with proposals for self-management having appeared many times throughout the history of the socialist movement, advocated variously by democratic, libertarian and market socialists as well as anarchists and communists.

Social ownership is a type of property where an asset is recognized to be in the possession of society as a whole rather than individual members or groups within it. Social ownership of the means of production is the defining characteristic of a socialist economy, and can take the form of community ownership, state ownership, common ownership, employee ownership, cooperative ownership, and citizen ownership of equity. Within the context of socialist economics it refers particularly to the appropriation of the surplus product, produced by the means of production, or the wealth that comes from it, to society at large or the workers themselves. Traditionally, social ownership implied that capital and factor markets would cease to exist under the assumption that market exchanges within the production process would be made redundant if capital goods were owned and integrated by a single entity or network of entities representing society. However, the articulation of models of market socialism where factor markets are utilized for allocating capital goods between socially owned enterprises broadened the definition to include autonomous entities within a market economy.

Market socialism is a type of economic system involving social ownership of the means of production within the framework of a market economy. Various models for such a system exist, usually involving cooperative enterprises and sometimes a mix that includes public or private enterprises. In contrast to the majority of historic socialist economies, which have substituted the market mechanism for some form of economic planning, market socialists wish to retain the use of supply and demand signals to guide the allocation of capital goods and the means of production. Under such a system, depending on whether socially owned firms are state-owned or operated as worker cooperatives, profits may variously be used to directly remunerate employees, accrue to society at large as the source of public finance, or be distributed amongst the population in a social dividend.

Socialist economics comprises the economic theories, practices and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems. A socialist economic system is characterized by social ownership and operation of the means of production that may take the form of autonomous cooperatives or direct public ownership wherein production is carried out directly for use rather than for profit. Socialist systems that utilize markets for allocating capital goods and factors of production among economic units are designated market socialism. When planning is utilized, the economic system is designated as a socialist planned economy. Non-market forms of socialism usually include a system of accounting based on calculation-in-kind to value resources and goods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratic confederalism</span> Political ideology and government structure

Democratic confederalism, also known as Kurdish communalism or Apoism, is a political concept theorized by Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) leader Abdullah Öcalan about a system of democratic self-organization with the features of a confederation based on the principles of autonomy, direct democracy, political ecology, feminism, multiculturalism, self-defense, self-governance and elements of a cooperative economy. Influenced by social ecology, libertarian municipalism, Middle Eastern history and general state theory, Öcalan presents the concept as a political solution to Kurdish national aspirations, as well as other fundamental problems in countries in the region deeply rooted in class society, and as a route to freedom and democratization for people around the world.

Atmanirbhar Bharat, which translates to 'self-reliant India', is a phrase the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi and his government used and popularised in relation to the country's economic development plans. The phrase is an umbrella concept for the Modi government's plans for India to play a larger role in the world economy, and for it to become more efficient, competitive and resilient.

References

  1. ↑ "International Economics Glossary: C". www-personal.umich.edu. Archived from the original on December 12, 2007.
  2. ↑ Van Oudenaren, John (1991). "7: Economics" . Détente in Europe: The Soviet Union and the West Since 1953. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. p.  255. ISBN   978-0822311416 . Retrieved 28 March 2019. After veering toward autarky under war communism, in the 1920s the Soviet authorities began restoring business relations with traditional partners.
  3. ↑ Helleiner, Eric (2021-01-05). "The Return of National Self-Sufficiency. Excavating Autarkic Thought in a De-Globalizing Era". International Studies Review . 23 (3): 933–957. doi: 10.1093/isr/viaa092 . ISSN   1521-9488.
  4. ↑ Krueger, Anne O. (2020). International Trade: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/wentk/9780190900465.001.0001. ISBN   978-0190900465.
  5. ↑
  6. ↑ Tenreyro, Silvana; Lisicky, Milan; Koren, Miklós; Caselli, Francesco (2019). "Diversification Through Trade" (PDF). The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 135: 449–502. doi:10.1093/qje/qjz028. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-22. Retrieved 2021-01-06.
  7. ↑ "Sumner_Panel_ST1" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-01-20. Retrieved 2014-01-18.
  8. ↑ Mansfield, Edward D.; Pollins, Brian M., eds. (2009). "Computer Simulations of International Trade and Conflict". Economic Interdependence and International Conflict: New Perspectives on an Enduring Debate: 333. ISBN   978-0472022939.
  9. ↑ Judt, Tony (2011). Socialism in Provence, 1871–1914. NYU Press. p. 263. ISBN   978-0814743553.
  10. ↑ Avishai Margalit, "Autonomy: Errors and Manipulation", Jerusalem Review of Legal Studies , Vol. 14, No. 1 (2016), p. 102 December 20, 2016
  11. ↑ Nietzsche's Therapeutic Teaching: For Individuals and Culture edited by Horst Hutter, Eli Friedland, Bloomsbury Academic, September 21, 2013, pp. 107–108
  12. ↑ "Autarky | Meaning & Definition for UK English". Lexico.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2021. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  13. ↑ "Autarchy | Meaning & Definition for UK English". Lexico.com. Archived from the original on October 18, 2020. Retrieved 2022-08-24.
  14. ↑ Mossé, Claude (1969). The ancient world at work. New York: Norton. pp.  27–28. ISBN   978-0393053982. OCLC   66672.
  15. ↑ Denecke, Wiebke (2011). The Dynamics of Masters Literature. Harvard University Asia Center. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1dnn8mc. ISBN   978-1684170586.
  16. ↑ Federici 2004, p. 50.
  17. ↑ Bookchin 2017, pp. 105–108.
  18. ↑ David., Graeber (2011). Debt : the first 5,000 years . Brooklyn, NY: Melville House. ISBN   978-1612191294. OCLC   426794447.
  19. ↑ Federici 2004, p. 62.
  20. ↑ Bath, B. H. S. Van. (1963). The Agrarian History of Western Europe, A.D. Arnold. ISBN   978-0713153354. OCLC   650486546.
  21. ↑ Ritchie, Robert C. (1998). Captain Kidd and the war against the pirates. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN   0760708401. OCLC   48085772.
  22. ↑ Kuhn, Gabriel (2020). Life under the Jolly Roger: reflections on golden age piracy. Oakland, CA. p. 41. ISBN   978-1629638034. OCLC   1159982546.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  23. ↑ Ray, Huang (1981). 1587, a year of no significance : the Ming dynasty in decline. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN   0300025181. OCLC   6280586.
  24. ↑ Hucker, Charles O. (1970). The traditional Chinese state in Ming times (1368–1644). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN   0816500932. OCLC   906066347.
  25. ↑ Cecelski 2012, pp. 128–130.
  26. ↑ Cecelski 2012, pp. 179–201.
  27. ↑ Cecelski, David S. (2015). The Fire of Freedom: Abraham Galloway and the Slaves' Civil War. London: University of Carolina Press. ISBN   978-1469621906. OCLC   900011294.
  28. ↑ Lawrence, Goodwyn (1978). The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0195024173. OCLC   3650099.
  29. ↑ Tuchman, Barbara W.; MacMillan, Margaret (2012). The Guns of August: The proud tower. New York: Library of America. p. 1046. ISBN   978-1598531459. OCLC   731911132.
  30. ↑ Scott, James C. (1998). Seeing like a state : how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0300070163. OCLC   37392803.
  31. ↑ Mbah, Sam; Igariwey, I. E. (1997). African anarchism: The History of a Movement. Tucson: See Sharp Press. pp. 27–53. ISBN   1884365051. OCLC   37510629.
  32. ↑ De Cleyre, Voltairine; Berkman, Alexander; Havel, Hippolyte (2016). The selected works of Voltairine de Cleyre: poems, essays, sketches and stories, 1885–1911. Chico: AK Press. ISBN   978-1849352567. OCLC   938996661.
  33. ↑ Kinna, Ruth (2007). "Fields of Vision: Kropotkin and Revolutionary Change". SubStance. 36 (2): 67–86. doi:10.1353/sub.2007.0032. ISSN   0049-2426. JSTOR   25195126. S2CID   143622322.
  34. ↑ Kropotkin, Petr Alekseevich (2006). Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (Dover Publications ed.). Mineola: Dover Publications. p. 119. ISBN   0486449130. OCLC   62282705.
  35. ↑ Lincoln, W. Bruce (1999). Red victory: A History of the Russian Civil War. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN   978-0306809095. OCLC   40510540.
  36. ↑ Lewin, Moshe (1994). The making of the Soviet system: essays in the social history of interwar Russia. New York: New Press. ISBN   978-1565841253. OCLC   30841557.
  37. ↑ Abel, Paz; Sharkey, Paul (2011). Story of the iron column: militant anarchism in the Spanish Civil War. Oakland, CA: AK Press. p. 170. ISBN   978-1849350655. OCLC   896845543.
  38. ↑ De Grand, Alexander J. (2000). Italian fascism: its origins & development (3rd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN   978-0803266223. OCLC   42462895.
  39. ↑ Edwin, Black (2001). IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful corporation. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN   978-0609607992. OCLC   45896166.
  40. ↑ Nayar, Baldev Raj (1997). "Nationalist Planning for Autarky and State Hegemony: Development Strategy Under Nehru". Indian Economic Review. 32 (1): 13–38. JSTOR   24010467.
  41. ↑ Malima, Kighoma A. (1979). "Planning for Self-Reliance Tanzania's Third Five Year Development Plan". Africa Development. 4 (1): 37–56. JSTOR   24498250.
  42. ↑ Jan., Blommaert (2014). State Ideology and Language in Tanzania: Second and Revised Edition (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0748668267. OCLC   1024254210.
  43. ↑ White, Monica M. (2017). "'A pig and a garden': Fannie Lou Hamer and the Freedom Farms Cooperative". Food and Foodways . 25 (1): 20. doi:10.1080/07409710.2017.1270647. ISSN   0740-9710. S2CID   157578821. Archived from the original on 2017-06-26. Retrieved 2020-11-11.
  44. ↑ Edge, John T. (2017-05-06). "Opinion | The Hidden Radicalism of Southern Food". The New York Times . ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2020-11-11.
  45. ↑ Bray, Mark (2017). Antifa: the anti-fascist handbook. Brooklyn, NY. ISBN   978-1612197036. OCLC   984595655.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  46. ↑ "Huey Newton introduces Revolutionary Intercommunalism, Boston College, November 18 1970". libcom.org. Archived from the original on 2018-09-19. Retrieved 2018-05-12.
  47. ↑ "The Havoc of Less". The New Inquiry. 2017-09-15. Archived from the original on 2018-02-06. Retrieved 2018-02-06.
  48. ↑ Bookchin, Murray (1977). Post-scarcity anarchism. Montreal: Black Rose Press. p.  138. ISBN   978-0-919618-47-3.
  49. ↑ Gordon, Uri (2008). Anarchy alive! Anti-Authoritarian Politics From Practice to Theory. London: Pluto Press. p. 45. ISBN   978-1849643672. OCLC   664263431.
  50. ↑ P. M. 2011, p. 89.
  51. ↑ P. M. 2011, p. 97.
  52. ↑ P. M. 2011, p. 139.
  53. ↑ Olivera, Oscar; Lewis, Tom (2004). Cochabamba!: Water War in Bolivia. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. ISBN   978-0896087026. OCLC   56194844.
  54. ↑ A small key can open a large door: the Rojava revolution. United States: Strangers In A Tangled Wilderness. 2015. ISBN   978-1938660177. OCLC   900796070.
  55. ↑ Bookchin, Murray (1990). The meaning of confederalism. Without such wholistic cultural and political changes as I have advocated, notions of decentralism that emphasize localist isolation and a degree of self-sufficiency may lead to cultural parochialism and chauvinism. Parochialism can lead to problems that are as serious as a 'global& mentality that overlooks the uniqueness of cultures, the peculiarities of ecosystems and eco-regions, and the need for a humanly scaled community life that makes a participatory democracy possible.
  56. ↑ "Welcome". Cooperation Jackson. Archived from the original on 2018-07-15. Retrieved 2018-07-15.
  57. ↑ Akuno, Kali; Nangwaya, Ajamu (2017). Jackson rising: the struggle for economic recovery and black self-determination in Jackson, Mississippi. Montreal, Quebec: Daraja Press. ISBN   978-0995347458. OCLC   976416348.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.