National security

Last updated

President of the United States Ronald Reagan in a briefing with US National Security Council staff on the Libya bombing on 15 April 1986 President Ronald Reagan being briefed by the National Security Council staff.jpg
President of the United States Ronald Reagan in a briefing with US National Security Council staff on the Libya bombing on 15 April 1986
Security measures are taken to protect the Palace of Westminster in London, UK. The heavy blocks of concrete are designed to prevent a car bomb or other device being rammed into the building. National.security.parliament.arp.750pix.Clean.jpg
Security measures are taken to protect the Palace of Westminster in London, UK. The heavy blocks of concrete are designed to prevent a car bomb or other device being rammed into the building.

National security, or national defence (national defense in American English), is the security and defence of a sovereign state, including its citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of government. Originally conceived as protection against military attack, national security is widely understood to include also non-military dimensions, such as the security from terrorism, minimization of crime, economic security, energy security, environmental security, food security, and cyber-security. Similarly, national security risks include, in addition to the actions of other states, action by violent non-state actors, by narcotic cartels, organized crime, by multinational corporations, and also the effects of natural disasters.

Contents

Governments rely on a range of measures, including political, economic, and military power, as well as diplomacy, to safeguard the security of a state. They may also act to build the conditions of security regionally and internationally by reducing transnational causes of insecurity, such as climate change, economic inequality, political exclusion, and nuclear proliferation.

Definitions

The concept of national security remains ambiguous, having evolved from simpler definitions which emphasised freedom from military threat and from political coercion. [1] :1–6 [2] :52–54 Among the many definitions proposed to date are the following, which show how the concept has evolved to encompass non-military concerns:

Jack Nelson-Pallmeyer provides a seven-characteristic definition for the related 'national security state' where the military and broader national security establishment, e.g., exert influence over political and economic affairs; hold ultimate power while maintaining an appearance of democracy; are preoccupied with external and/or internal enemies; define policies in secret and implement those policies through covert channels. [8]

Dimensions

Potential causes of national insecurity include actions by other states (e.g. military or cyber attack), violent non-state actors (e.g. terrorist attack), organised criminal groups such as narcotic cartels, and also the effects of natural disasters (e.g. flooding, earthquakes). [3] :v,1–8 [9] [10] Systemic drivers of insecurity, which may be transnational, include climate change, economic inequality and marginalisation, political exclusion, and nuclear proliferation. [9] :3 [10]

In view of the wide range of risks, the security of a state has several dimensions, including economic security, energy security, physical security, environmental security, food security, border security, and cyber security. These dimensions correlate closely with elements of national power.

Increasingly, governments organise their security policies into a national security strategy (NSS); [11] as of 2017, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States are among the states to have done so. [12] [13] [14] [15] Some states also appoint a National Security Council and/or a National Security Advisor which is an executive government agency, it feeds the head of the state on topics concerning national security and strategic interest. The national security council/advisor strategies long term, short term, contingency national security plans. India holds one such system in current, which was established on 19 November 1998.

Although states differ in their approach, various forms of coercive power predominate, particularly military capabilities. [9] The scope of these capabilities has developed. Traditionally, military capabilities were mainly land- or sea-based, and in smaller countries, they still are. Elsewhere, the domains of potential warfare now include the air, space, cyberspace, and psychological operations. [16] Military capabilities designed for these domains may be used for national security, or equally for offensive purposes, for example to conquer and annex territory and resources.

Physical

In practice, national security is associated primarily with managing physical threats and with the military capabilities used for doing so. [12] [14] [15] That is, national security is often understood as the capacity of a nation to mobilise military forces to guarantee its borders and to deter or successfully defend against physical threats including military aggression and attacks by non-state actors, such as terrorism. Most states, such as South Africa and Sweden, [17] [13] configure their military forces mainly for territorial defence; others, such as France, Russia, the UK and the US, [18] [19] [14] [15] invest in higher-cost expeditionary capabilities, which allow their armed forces to project power and sustain military operations abroad.

Infrastructural

The SUPO headquarters in Punavuori, Helsinki Supon paamaja Helsingissa 02.jpg
The SUPO headquarters in Punavuori, Helsinki

Infrastructure security is the security provided to protect infrastructure, especially critical infrastructure, such as airports, highways, [20] rail transport, hospitals, bridges, transport hubs, network communications, media, the electricity grid, dams, power plants, seaports, oil refineries, and water systems. Infrastructure security seeks to limit vulnerability of these structures and systems to sabotage, terrorism, and contamination. [21]

Many countries have established government agencies to directly manage the security of critical infrastructure, usually, through the Ministry of Interior/Home Affairs, dedicated security agencies to protect facilities such as United States Federal Protective Service, and also dedicated transport police such as the British Transport Police. There are also commercial transportation security units such as the Amtrak Police in the United States. Critical infrastructure is vital for the essential functioning of a country. Incidental or deliberate damage can have a serious impact on the economy and essential services. Some of the threats to infrastructure include:

Virtual

Computer security, also known as cybersecurity or IT security, refers to the security of computing devices such as computers and smartphones, as well as computer networks such as private and public networks, and the Internet. It concerns the protection of hardware, software, data, people, and also the procedures by which systems are accessed, and the field has growing importance due to the increasing reliance on computer systems in most societies. [22] Since unauthorized access to critical civil and military infrastructure is now considered a major threat, cyberspace is now recognised as a domain of warfare. One such example is the use of Stuxnet by the US and Israel against the Iranian nuclear programme [16]

Political

Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver, Jaap de Wilde and others have argued that national security depends on political security: the stability of the social order. [23] Others, such as Paul Rogers, have added that the equitability of the international order is equally vital. [10] Hence, political security depends on the rule of international law (including the laws of war), the effectiveness of international political institutions, as well as diplomacy and negotiation between nations and other security actors. [23] It also depends on, among other factors, effective political inclusion of disaffected groups and the human security of the citizenry. [10] [9] [24]

Economic

Economic security, in the context of international relations, is the ability of a nation state to maintain and develop the national economy, without which other dimensions of national security cannot be managed. Economic capability largely determines the defence capability of a nation, and thus a sound economic security directly influences the national security of a nation. That is why we see countries with sound economy, happen to have sound security setup too, such as The United States, China, India among others. In larger countries, strategies for economic security expect to access resources and markets in other countries and to protect their own markets at home. Developing countries may be less secure than economically advanced states due to high rates of unemployment and underpaid work.[ citation needed ]

Environmental

Environmental security, also known as ecological security, refers to the integrity of ecosystems and the biosphere, particularly in relation to their capacity to sustain a diversity of life-forms (including human life). The security of ecosystems has attracted greater attention as the impact of ecological damage by humans has grown. [25] The degradation of ecosystems, including topsoil erosion, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change, affect economic security and can precipitate mass migration, leading to increased pressure on resources elsewhere. Ecological security is also important since most of the countries in the world are developing and dependent on agriculture and agriculture gets affected largely due to climate change. This effect affects the economy of the nation, which in turn affects national security.

The scope and nature of environmental threats to national security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. [3] :29–33 Romm (1993) classifies the major impacts of ecological changes on national security as: [3] :15

Climate change is affecting global agriculture and food security. GLOBAL WARMING AFFECTING GLOBAL AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY.pdf
Climate change is affecting global agriculture and food security.
Refugees fleeing war and insecurity in Iraq and Syria arrive at Lesbos Island, supported by Spanish volunteers, 2015. 20151030 Syrians and Iraq refugees arrive at Skala Sykamias Lesvos Greece 2.jpg
Refugees fleeing war and insecurity in Iraq and Syria arrive at Lesbos Island, supported by Spanish volunteers, 2015.

Energy and natural resources

Resources include water, sources of energy, land, and minerals. Availability of adequate natural resources is important for a nation to develop its industry and economic power. For example, in the Persian Gulf War of 1991, Iraq captured Kuwait partly in order to secure access to its oil wells, and one reason for the US counter-invasion was the value of the same wells to its own economy.[ citation needed ] Water resources are subject to disputes between many nations, including India and Pakistan, and in the Middle East.

The interrelations between security, energy, natural resources, and their sustainability is increasingly acknowledged in national security strategies and resource security is now included among the UN Sustainable Development Goals. [13] [12] [28] [15] [29] In the US, for example, the military has installed solar photovoltaic microgrids on their bases in case of power outage. [30] [31]

Issues

Consistency of approach

The dimensions of national security outlined above are frequently in tension with one another. For example:

If tensions such as these are mismanaged, national security policies and actions may be ineffective or counterproductive.

Versus transnational security

Increasingly, national security strategies have begun to recognise that nations cannot provide for their own security without also developing the security of their regional and international context. [15] [28] [12] [13] For example, Sweden's national security strategy of 2017 declared:

"Wider security measures must also now encompass protection against epidemics and infectious diseases, combating terrorism and organised crime, ensuring safe transport and reliable food supplies, protecting against energy supply interruptions, countering devastating climate change, initiatives for peace and global development, and much more." [13]

A US F-14 over a burning oil well in Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, 1991 F-14A VF-114 over burning Kuwaiti oil well 1991.JPEG
A US F-14 over a burning oil well in Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, 1991

The extent to which this matters, and how it should be done, is the subject of debate. Some argue that the principal beneficiary of national security policy should be the nation state itself, which should centre its strategy on protective and coercive capabilities in order to safeguard itself in a hostile environment (and potentially to project that power into its environment, and dominate it to the point of strategic supremacy). [36] [37] [38] Others argue that security depends principally on building the conditions in which equitable relationships between nations can develop, partly by reducing antagonism between actors, ensuring that fundamental needs can be met, and also that differences of interest can be negotiated effectively. [39] [9] [10] In the UK, for example, Malcolm Chalmers argued in 2015 that the heart of the UK's approach should be support for the Western strategic military alliance led through NATO by the United States, as "the key anchor around which international order is maintained". [40]

Civil liberties and human rights

Approaches to national security can have a complex impact on human rights and civil liberties. For example, the rights and liberties of citizens are affected by the use of military personnel and militarised police forces to control public behaviour; the use of surveillance, including mass surveillance in cyberspace, which has implications for privacy; military recruitment and conscription practices; and the effects of warfare on civilians and civil infrastructure. This has led to a dialectical struggle, particularly in liberal democracies, between government authority and the rights and freedoms of the general public.

The National Security Agency harvests personal data across the internet. National Security Agency, 2013.jpg
The National Security Agency harvests personal data across the internet.

Even where the exercise of national security is subject to good governance, and the rule of law, a risk remains that the term national security may become a pretext for suppressing unfavorable political and social views. In the US, for example, the controversial USA Patriot Act of 2001, and the revelation by Edward Snowden in 2013 that the National Security Agency harvests the personal data of the general public, brought these issues to wide public attention. Among the questions raised are whether and how national security considerations at times of war should lead to the suppression of individual rights and freedoms, and whether such restrictions are necessary when a state is at peace.

By region

Argentina and Brazil

National security ideology as taught by the US Army School of the Americas to military personnel was vital in causing the military coup of 1964 in Brazil and the 1976 one in Argentina. The military dictatorships were installed on the claim by the military that Leftists were an existential threat to the national interests. [41]

China

China's military is the People's Liberation Army (PLA). The military is the largest in the world, with 2.3 million active troops in 2005.

The Ministry of State Security was established in 1983 to ensure "the security of the state through effective measures against enemy agents, spies, and counterrevolutionary activities designed to sabotage or overthrow China's socialist system." [42]

European Union

For Schengen area [43] some parts of national security and external border control are enforced by Frontex [44] according to the Treaty of Lisbon. The security policy of the European Union is set by High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and assisted by European External Action Service. [45] Europol is one of the agencies of the European Union responsible for combating various forms of crime in the European Union through coordinating law enforcement agencies of the EU member states. [46]

European Union national security has been accused of insufficiently preventing foreign threats. [47]

India

The state of the Republic of India's national security is determined by its internal stability and geopolitical interests. While Islamic upsurge in Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir demanding secession and far left-wing terrorism in India's red corridor remain some key issues in India's internal security, terrorism from Pakistan-based militant groups has been emerging as a major concern for New Delhi.

The National Security Advisor of India heads the National Security Council of India, receives all kinds of intelligence reports, and is chief advisor to the Prime Minister of India over national and international security policy. The National Security Council has India's defence, foreign, home, finance ministers and deputy chairman of NITI Aayog as its members and is responsible for shaping strategies for India's security in all aspects. [48]

A lawyer Ashwini Upadhyay filed a Public interest litigation (PIL) in the "Supreme Court of India" (SC) to identify and deport illegal immigrants. Responding to this PIL, Delhi Police told the SC in July 2019 that nearly 500 illegal Bangladeshi immigrants have been deported in the preceding 28 months. [49] There are estimated 600,000 to 700,000 illegal Bangladeshi and Rohingya immigrants in National Capital Region (NCR) region specially in the districts of Gurugram, Faridabad, and Nuh (Mewat region), as well as interior villages of Bhiwani and Hisar. Most of them are Muslims who have acquired fake Hindu identity, and under questioning, they pretend to be from West Bengal. In September 2019, the Chief Minister of Haryana, Manohar Lal Khattar announced the implementation of NRC for Haryana by setting up a legal framework under the former judge of the Punjab and Haryana High Court, Justice HS Bhalla for updating NRC which will help in weeding out these illegal immigrants. [50]

Russia

In the years 1997 and 2000, Russia adopted documents titled "National Security Concept" that described Russia's global position, the country's interests, listed threats to national security, and described the means to counter those threats. In 2009, these documents were superseded by the "National Security Strategy to 2020". The key body responsible for coordinating policies related to Russia's national security is the Security Council of Russia.

According to provision 6 of the National Security Strategy to 2020, national security is "the situation in which the individual, the society and the state enjoy protection from foreign and domestic threats to the degree that ensures constitutional rights and freedoms, decent quality of life for citizens, as well as sovereignty, territorial integrity and stable development of the Russian Federation, the defence and security of the state."

Singapore

Total Defence is Singapore's whole-of-society national defence concept [51] based on the premise that the strongest defence of a nation is collective defence [52] – when every aspect of society stays united for the defence of the country. [53] Adopted from the national defence strategies of Sweden and Switzerland, [54] Total Defence was introduced in Singapore in 1984. Then, it was recognised that military threats to a nation can affect the psyche and social fabric of its people. [55] Therefore, the defence and progress of Singapore are dependent on all of its citizens' resolve, along with the government and armed forces. [56] Total Defence has since evolved to take into consideration threats and challenges outside of the conventional military domain.

Ukraine

National security of Ukraine is defined in Ukrainian law as "a set of legislative and organisational measures aimed at permanent protection of vital interests of man and citizen, society and the state, which ensure sustainable development of society, timely detection, prevention and neutralisation of real and potential threats to national interests in areas of law enforcement, fight against corruption, border activities and defence, migration policy, health care, education and science, technology and innovation policy, cultural development of the population, freedom of speech and information security, social policy and pension provision, housing and communal services, financial services market, protection of property rights, stock markets and circulation of securities, fiscal and customs policy, trade and business, banking services, investment policy, auditing, monetary and exchange rate policy, information security, licensing, industry and agriculture, transport and communications, information technology, energy and energy saving, functioning of natural monopolies, use of subsoil, land and water resources, minerals, protection of ecology and environment and other areas of public administration, in the event of emergence of negative trends towards the creation of potential or real threats to national interests." [57]

The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in Ukraine is the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine. It is an advisory state agency to the President of Ukraine, tasked with developing a policy of national security on domestic and international matters. All sessions of the council take place in the Presidential Administration Building. The council was created by the provision of Supreme Council of Ukraine #1658-12 on October 11, 1991. It was defined as the highest state body of collegiate governing on matters of defence and security of Ukraine with the following goals:

United Kingdom

The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in the UK is the National Security Council (United Kingdom) which helps produce and enact the UK's National Security Strategy. It was created in May 2010 by the new coalition government of the Conservative Party (UK) and Liberal Democrats. The National Security Council is a committee of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and was created as part of a wider reform of the national security apparatus. This reform also included the creation of a National Security Adviser and a National Security Secretariat to support the National Security Council. [58]

United States

National Security Act of 1947

The concept of national security became an official guiding principle of foreign policy in the United States when the National Security Act of 1947 was signed on July 26, 1947, by U.S. President Harry S. Truman. [3] :3 As amended in 1949, this Act:

Notably, the Act did not define national security, which was conceivably advantageous, as its ambiguity made it a powerful phrase to invoke against diverse threats to interests of the state, such as domestic concerns. [3] :3–5

The notion that national security encompasses more than just military security was present, though understated, from the beginning. The Act established the National Security Council so as to "advise the President on the integration of domestic, military and foreign policies relating to national security". [2] :52

The act establishes, within the National Security Council, the Committee on Foreign Intelligence, whose duty is to conduct an annual review "identifying the intelligence required to address the national security interests of the United States as specified by the President" (emphasis added). [60]

In Gen. Maxwell Taylor's 1974 essay "The Legitimate Claims of National Security", Taylor states: [61]

The national valuables in this broad sense include current assets and national interests, as well as the sources of strength upon which our future as a nation depends. Some valuables are tangible and earthy; others are spiritual or intellectual. They range widely from political assets such as the Bill of Rights, our political institutions, and international friendships to many economic assets which radiate worldwide from a highly productive domestic economy supported by rich natural resources. It is the urgent need to protect valuables such as these which legitimizes and makes essential the role of national security.

National security state

To address the institutionalisation of new bureaucracies and government practices in the post–World War II period in the U.S., the culture of semi-permanent military mobilisation joined the National Security Council (NSC), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Department of Defense (DoD), and the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) for the practical application of the concept of the national security state: [62] [63] [64]

During and after World War II, U.S. leaders expanded the concept of national security, and used its terminology for the first time to explain America's relationship to the world. For most of U.S. history, the continental United States was secure. But, by 1945, it had become rapidly vulnerable with the advent of long-range bombers, atom bombs, and ballistic missiles. A general perception grew that future mobilization would be insufficient and that preparation must be constant. For the first time, American leaders dealt with the essential paradox of national security faced by the Roman Empire and subsequent great powers: Si vis pacem, para bellum — "If you want peace, prepare for war." [65]

David Jablonsky

Obama administration

The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff defines national security of the United States in the following manner : [66]

A collective term encompassing both national defense and foreign relations of the United States. Specifically, the condition provided by: a. a military or defense advantage over any foreign nation or group of nations; b. a favorable foreign relations position; or c. a defense posture capable of successfully resisting hostile or destructive action from within or without, overt or covert.

In 2010, the White House included an all-encompassing world-view in a national security strategy which identified "security" as one of the country's "four enduring national interests" that were "inexorably intertwined": [67]

"To achieve the world we seek, the United States must apply our strategic approach in pursuit of four enduring national interests:

  • Security:  The security of the United States, its citizens, and U.S. allies and partners.
  • Prosperity:  A strong, innovative, and growing U.S. economy in an open international economic system that promotes opportunity and prosperity.
  • Values: Respect for universal values at home and around the world.
  • International Order:  An international order advanced by U.S. leadership that promotes peace, security, and opportunity through stronger cooperation to meet global challenges.

Each of these interests is inextricably linked to the others: no single interest can be pursued in isolation, but at the same time, positive action in one area will help advance all four."

National Security Strategy, Executive Office of the President of the United States (May 2010)

Empowerment of women

U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has said that, "The countries that threaten regional and global peace are the very places where women and girls are deprived of dignity and opportunity". [68] She has noted that countries, where women are oppressed, are places where the "rule of law and democracy are struggling to take root", [68] and that, when women's rights as equals in society are upheld, the society as a whole changes and improves, which in turn enhances stability in that society, which in turn contributes to global society. [68]

Cyber

The Bush administration in January 2008 initiated the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative (CNCI). It introduced a differentiated approach, such as identifying existing and emerging cybersecurity threats, finding and plugging existing cyber vulnerabilities and apprehending those trying to access federal information systems. [69]

President Obama said the "cyber threat is one of the most serious economic and national security challenges we face as a nation" and that "America's economic prosperity in the 21st century will depend on cybersecurity". [70]

See also

Related Research Articles

The National Security Strategy (NSS) is a document prepared periodically by the executive branch of the United States that lists the national security concerns and how the administration plans to deal with them. The legal foundation for the document is spelled out in the Goldwater–Nichols Act. The document is purposely general in content, and its implementation relies on elaborating guidance provided in supporting documents such as the National Military Strategy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great power</span> Nation that has great political, social, and economic influence on a global scale

A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence, which may cause middle or small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own. International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions.

Grand strategy or high strategy is a state's strategy of how means can be used to advance and achieve national interests in the long-term. Issues of grand strategy typically include the choice of military doctrine, force structure and alliances, as well as economic relations, diplomatic behavior, and methods to extract or mobilize resources.

The U.S. Commission on National Security/21st Century (USCNS/21), also known as the Hart-Rudman Commission or Hart-Rudman Task Force on Homeland Security, was chartered by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 1998 to provide a comprehensive review of US national security requirements in the 21st century. USCNS/21 was tasked "to analyze the emerging international security environment; to develop a US national security strategy appropriate to that environment; and to assess the various security institutions for their current relevance to the effective and efficient implementation of that strategy, and to recommend adjustments as necessary".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common Security and Defence Policy</span> Defence policy of the European Union

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

The National Military Strategy (NMS) is issued by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff as a deliverable to the secretary of defense briefly outlining the strategic aims of the armed services. The NMS's chief source of guidance is the National Security Strategy document.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Under Secretary of Defense for Policy</span> United States government position

The United States under secretary of defense for policy (USDP) is a high level civilian official in the United States Department of Defense. The under secretary of defense for policy is the principal staff assistant and adviser to both the secretary of defense and the deputy secretary of defense for all matters concerning the formation of national security and defense policy.

The Australian Intelligence Community (AIC) and the National Intelligence Community (NIC) or National Security Community of the Australian Government are the collectives of statutory intelligence agencies, policy departments, and other government agencies concerned with protecting and advancing the national security and national interests of the Commonwealth of Australia. The intelligence and security agencies of the Australian Government have evolved since the Second World War and the Cold War and saw transformation and expansion during the Global War on Terrorism with military deployments in Afghanistan, Iraq and against ISIS in Syria. Key international and national security issues for the Australian Intelligence Community include terrorism and violent extremism, cybersecurity, transnational crime, the rise of China, and Pacific regional security.

Proactive cyber defense, means acting in anticipation to oppose an attack through cyber and cognitive domains. Proactive cyber defense can be understood as options between offensive and defensive measures. It includes interdicting, disrupting or deterring an attack or a threat's preparation to attack, either pre-emptively or in self-defence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ministry of Defence (Estonia)</span> Government ministry of Estonia

The Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Estonia and its head, the Minister of Defence, are responsible for organizing national defence. It is Estonia's ministry of defence. The mission of the Ministry of Defence is to deter attacks against Estonia and ensure that the country is capable of defending itself against external threats. Estonian national defence is based on initial self-defence capability as well as membership in NATO.

In international relations, the term smart power refers to the combination of hard power and soft power strategies. It is defined by the Center for Strategic and International Studies as "an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institutions of all levels to expand one's influence and establish legitimacy of one's action."

The String of Pearls is a geopolitical hypothesis proposed by United States political researchers in 2004. The term refers to the network of Chinese military and commercial facilities and relationships along its sea lines of communication, which extend from the Chinese mainland to Port Sudan in the Horn of Africa. The sea lines run through several major maritime choke points such as the Strait of Mandeb, the Strait of Malacca, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Lombok Strait as well as other strategic maritime centres in Somalia and the littoral South Asian countries of Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and the Maldives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Cyber Command</span> Unified combatant command of the United States Armed Forces responsible for cyber operations

United States Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM) is one of the eleven unified combatant commands of the United States Department of Defense (DoD). It unifies the direction of cyberspace operations, strengthens DoD cyberspace capabilities, and integrates and bolsters DoD's cyber expertise which focus on securing cyberspace.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic policy of the United States</span>

The Arctic policy of the United States is the foreign policy of the United States in regard to the Arctic region. In addition, the United States' domestic policy toward Alaska is part of its Arctic policy.

Cyberwarfare is the use of computer technology to disrupt the activities of a state or organization, especially the deliberate attacking of information systems for strategic or military purposes. As a major developed economy, the United States is highly dependent on the Internet and therefore greatly exposed to cyber attacks. At the same time, the United States has substantial capabilities in both defense and offensive power projection thanks to comparatively advanced technology and a large military budget. Cyberwarfare presents a growing threat to physical systems and infrastructures that are linked to the internet. Malicious hacking from domestic or foreign enemies remains a constant threat to the United States. In response to these growing threats, the United States has developed significant cyber capabilities.

The 2011 U.S. Department of Defense Strategy for Operating in Cyberspace is a formal assessment of the challenges and opportunities inherent in increasing reliance on cyberspace for military, intelligence, and business operations. Although the complete document is classified and 40 pages long, this 19 page summary was released in July 2011 and explores the strategic context of cyberspace before describing five “strategic initiatives” to set a strategic approach for DoDʼs cyber mission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic policy of the Kingdom of Denmark</span> Danish foreign policy

The Arctic Policy of the Kingdom of Denmark defines the Kingdom's foreign relations and policies with other Arctic countries, and the Kingdom's strategy for the Arctic on issues occurring within the geographic boundaries of "the Arctic" or related to the Arctic or its peoples. In order to clearly understand the Danish geopolitical importance of the Arctic, it is necessary to mention Denmark's territorial claims in areas beyond its exclusive EEZ in areas around the Faroe Islands and north of Greenland covering parts of the North Pole, which is also claimed by Russia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Common Security and Defence Policy</span> Aspect in of history

This article outlines the history of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union (EU), a part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) is the aspect of maritime domain awareness focused on the underwater sector, including, from a security perspective, sea lines of communication (SLOC), coastal waters and varied maritime assets with reference to hostile intent and the proliferation of submarine and mine capabilities intended to limit access to the seas and littoral waters. The military requirement is not the only motivation for undersea domain awareness. The earth's undersea geophysical activities as they relate to the well-being of humans is also relevant, as monitoring such activities can provide vital clues to minimize the impact of devastating natural disasters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Union Maritime Security Strategy</span> Maritime security strategy of the European Union

The European Union Maritime Security Strategy is a maritime security strategy of the European Union. It was unanimously adopted by EU member states in June 2014. The EUMSS provides a framework for the EU's actions within maritime security in order to promote broader and more coherent approaches to identified maritime security challenges. Maritime security strategies have been adopted by a number of countries like France, India, United Kingdom and United States of America. Such strategies are used to organise a country or region's actions within maritime security by identifying maritime security challenges and relevant actors.

References

  1. Romm, Joseph J. (1993). Defining national security: the nonmilitary aspects. Pew Project on America's Task in a Changed World (Pew Project Series). Council on Foreign Relations. p. 122. ISBN   978-0-87609-135-7 . Retrieved 22 September 2010.
  2. 1 2 3 Paleri, Prabhakaran (2008). National Security: Imperatives And Challenges. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 521. ISBN   978-0-07-065686-4 . Retrieved 23 September 2010.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Romm, Joseph J. (1993). Defining national security: the nonmilitary aspects. Pew Project on America's Task in a Changed World (Pew Project Series). Council on Foreign Relations. p. 122. ISBN   978-0-87609-135-7 . Retrieved 22 September 2010.
  4. Quoted in Paleri (2008) ibid. Pg 52.
  5. Brown, Harold (1983) Thinking about national security: defense and foreign policy in a dangerous world. As quoted in Watson, Cynthia Ann (2008). U.S. national security: a reference handbook . Contemporary world issues (2 (revised) ed.). ABC-CLIO. pp.  281. ISBN   978-1-59884-041-4 . Retrieved 24 September 2010.
  6. Maier, Charles S.Peace and security for the 1990s. Unpublished paper for the MacArthur Fellowship Program, Social Science Research Council, 12 Jun 1990. As quoted in Romm 1993, p.5
  7. Definition from "Proceedings of Seminar on "A Maritime Strategy for India" (1996). National Defence College, Tees January Marg, New Delhi, India. quoted in Paleri 2008 (ibid).
  8. Nelson-Pallmeyer, Jack (2017). Brave New World Order: Must We Pledge Allegiance?. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 34–41. ISBN   9781532617010.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Ammerdown Group (2016). "Rethinking Security: A discussion paper" (PDF). rethinkingsecurity.org.uk. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Rogers, P (2010). Losing control : global security in the twenty-first century (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. ISBN   9780745329376. OCLC   658007519.
  11. "National Security Strategy". Office of the Security of Defense.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Spanish Government (2013). "The National Security Strategy: Sharing a common project" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Sweden, Prime Minister's Office (2017). "National Security Strategy" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  14. 1 2 3 UK, Cabinet Office (2015). "National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015" . Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 US, White House (2015). "National Security Strategy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-06. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  16. 1 2 "War in the fifth domain". The Economist. Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  17. South Africa, Department of Defence (2015). "South African Defence Review, 2015" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-06-09. Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  18. France (2017). "Strategic Review of Defence and National Security" (PDF). Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  19. Olika, O (2016). "Unpacking Russia's New National Security Strategy". www.csis.org. Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  20. "Highways For Travelers". Transportation Security Administration . Archived from the original on 15 September 2012.
  21. "TSA | Who We Are". Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved 2008-12-07.
  22. "Reliance spells end of road for ICT amateurs", May 07, 2013, The Australian
  23. 1 2 Security: a new framework for analysis. Lynne Rienner Publishers. 1998. p. 239. ISBN   978-1-55587-784-2.
  24. United Nations. "UN Trust Fund for Human Security". un.org. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  25. United Nations General Assembly (2010). "Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 2010". un.org. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  26. Gleick, Peter H. (2014-03-03). "Water, Drought, Climate Change, and Conflict in Syria". Weather, Climate, and Society. 6 (3): 331–340. doi:10.1175/wcas-d-13-00059.1. ISSN   1948-8327. S2CID   153715885.
  27. Diamond, Jared. "Malthus in Africa: Rwanda's Genocide" . Retrieved 26 September 2010.
  28. 1 2 UK, Cabinet Office (2008). "The national security strategy of the United Kingdom: security in an interdependent world" . Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  29. Farah, Paolo Davide (2015). "Sustainable Energy Investments and National Security: Arbitration and Negotiation Issues". Journal of World Energy Law and Business. 8 (6).
  30. Prehoda, et al. 2017. U.S. Strategic Solar Photovoltaic-Powered Microgrid Deployment for Enhanced National Security. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews78, 167–175. doi : 10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.094
  31. U.S. Army and Lockheed Martin Commission Microgrid at Fort Bliss. 2013. http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/news/press-releases/2013/may/mfc-051613-us-armyand-LM.html
  32. World Bank (2017). "Military expenditure (% of central government expenditure, 2015)". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  33. Wars in peace : British military operations since 1991. Johnson, Adrian (Historian), Chalmers, Malcolm, 1956–, Clarke, Michael, 1950–, Codner, Michael, Fry, Robert (Robert Alan), 1951–, Omand, David. London, UK. 2014. ISBN   9780855161934. OCLC   880550682.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  34. Section, United Nations News Service (2014-03-27). "UN News - Backing Ukraine's territorial integrity, UN Assembly declares Crimea referendum invalid". UN News Service Section. Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  35. Jackson, T (2009). Prosperity without growth: economics for a finite planet . London: Earthscan. ISBN   9781849713238. OCLC   320800523.
  36. US, Department of Defense (2000). "Joint Vision 2020 Emphasizes Full-spectrum Dominance". archive.defense.gov. Archived from the original on 2017-09-30. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  37. House of Commons Defence Committee (2015). "Re-thinking defence to meet new threats". publications.parliament.uk. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  38. General Sir Nicholas Houghton (2015). "Building a British military fit for future challenges rather than past conflicts". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  39. FCNL (2015). "Peace Through Shared Security" . Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  40. Chalmers, M (2015-05-05). "A Force for Order: Strategic Underpinnings of the Next NSS and SDSR". RUSI. Archived from the original on 2018-03-10. Retrieved 2017-12-18.
  41. Emir Sader, "The coup in Brazil and the doctrine of National Security" (Portuguese) http://cartamaior.com.br/?/Blog/Blog-do-Emir/O-golpe-no-Brasil-e-a-doutrina-de-seguranca-nacional/2/27107 Archived 2020-10-23 at the Wayback Machine
  42. Ministry of State Security, Intelligence Resource Program, Federation of American Scientists
  43. Article 2(63) to (68) of the Lisbon Treaty (OJ C 306, 17 December 2007, p. 57).
  44. See Regulation (EU) 2016/1624 recital 11 ("...the European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union should therefore be expanded. To reflect those changes, it should be renamed the European Border and Coast Guard Agency, which will continue to be commonly referred to as Frontex. It should remain the same legal person, with full continuity in all its activities and procedures....") and article 6 ("The European Border and Coast Guard Agency shall be the new name for the European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Members States of the European Union established by Regulation (EC) No 2007/2004. Its activities shall be based on this Regulation....")
  45. Gateway to the European Union, European External Axis Service – accessed 16 February 2011
  46. "Council Decision of 6 April 2009 establishing the European Police Office (Europol) (2009/371/JHA)". Official Journal of the European Union. L (121). 15 May 2009. Retrieved 20 September 2017 via EUR-Lex.
  47. Russians Keep Turning Up Dead All Over the World, The Wall Street Journal, 2024
  48. "20 years of NSC: What India's Expanded Security Architecture Looks Like". Nitin A. Gokhale. 16 April 2019. Archived from the original on 21 April 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  49. Nearly 500 illegal Bangladesh nationals detained, deported: Delhi police to SC, Times of India, 31 July 2019.
  50. Rohingyas, Bangladeshi refugees likely target of Khattar govt’s updated NRC, Hindustan Times, 16 September 2019.
  51. "Speech by Senior Minister of State for Defence, Mr Heng Chee How, at the Total Defence Awards 2019". www.mindef.gov.sg. Retrieved 2020-06-10.
  52. "Minister Chan Chun Sing: Total Defence is Singapore's Best Response to Evolving Challenges". www.mindef.gov.sg. Retrieved 2020-06-10.
  53. The 2nd Decade: Nation Building in Progress 1975 – 1985. National Archives of Singapore. 2010. p. 63.
  54. "Fact Sheet: Evolution and History of Total Defence over the past 35 years". MINDEF Singapore. 15 Feb 2019. Retrieved 2020-06-10.
  55. "Speech by Mr Goh Chok Tong, Minister of Defence and Second Minister for Health, at the Graduation Ceremony at Pasir Laba Camp on Tuesday 27 March 1984 at 6.30pm" (PDF). National Archives Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on Jan 17, 2024.
  56. "Speech by Minister for Communications and Information Mr S Iswaran at the Total Defence Day Commemoration Event and Launch of Digital Defence". MINDEF Singapore. 15 Feb 2019. Retrieved 2020-06-10.
  57. Закон України «Про основи національної безпеки України» від 19.06.2003 № 964-IV
  58. Joe Devanny & Josh Harris (4 November 2014). "The National Security Council: national security at the centre of government". Institute for Government & King's College London. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  59. Davis, Robert T. (2010). Robert T. Davis (ed.). U.S. Foreign Policy and National Security: Chronology and Index for the 20th Century. Praeger Security International Series (Illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN   978-0-313-38385-4 . Retrieved 25 September 2010.
  60. 50 U.S.C.   § 402
  61. Taylor, Gen Maxwell (1974). "The Legitimate Claims of National Security" . Foreign Affairs . 52 (Essay of 1974). Council on Foreign Relations, Inc.: 577–594. doi:10.2307/20038070. JSTOR   20038070 . Retrieved 25 September 2010.
  62. Yergin, Daniel. Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
  63. Stuart, Douglas T. Creating the National Security State: A History of the Law That Transformed America. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008. ISBN   9781400823772
  64. Ripsman, Norrin M., and T. V. Paul. Globalization and the National Security State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  65. David Jablonsky. The State of the National Security State. Carlisle Barracks, PA,: Strategic Studies Institute, 2002. PDF Archived 2013-05-22 at the Wayback Machine
  66. US NATO Military Terminology Group (2010). JP 1 (02) "Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms", 2001 (As amended through 31 July 2010) (PDF). Pentagon, Washington: Joint Chiefs of Staff, US Department of Defense. p. 361. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
  67. Obama, Barack. National Security Strategy, May 2010 Archived 2017-01-20 at the Wayback Machine . Office of the President of the United States, White House, p. 17. Accessed 23 September 2010.
  68. 1 2 3 Lemmon, Gayle Tzemach (2013). "The Hillary Doctrine: Women's Rights Are a National Security Issue". the Atlantic.
  69. Rollins, John, and Anna C. Henning. Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative Legal Authorities and Policy Considerations. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 2009.
  70. "White House: Cybersecurity". whitehouse.gov via National Archives.

Further reading