Media (communication)

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In communication, media are the outlets or tools used to store and deliver content; semantic information or subject matter of which the media contains. [1] [2] The term generally refers to components of the mass media communications industry, such as print media, publishing, news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting (radio and television), digital media, and advertising. [3]

Contents

The development of early writing and paper enabling longer-distance communication systems such as mail, including in the Persian Empire (Chapar Khaneh and Angarium) and Roman Empire, can be interpreted as early forms of media. [4] Writers such as Howard Rheingold have framed early forms of human communication, such as the Lascaux cave paintings and early writing, as early forms of media. [5] Another framing of the history of media starts with the Chauvet Cave paintings and continues with other ways to carry human communication beyond the short range of voice: smoke signals, trail markers, and sculpture. [6]

In its modern application, the term media is relating to communication channels was first used by Canadian communications theorist Marshall McLuhan, who stated in Counterblast (1954): "The media are not toys; they should not be in the hands of Mother Goose and Peter Pan executives. They can be entrusted only to new artists because they are art forms." By the mid-1960s, the term had spread to general use in North America and the United Kingdom. According to H. L. Mencken, the phrase mass media was used as early as 1923 in the United States. [7] [8]

The term medium (the singular form of media) is defined as "one of the means or channels of general communication, information, or entertainment in society, as newspapers, radio, or television." [9]

Regulations

The role of regulatory authorities (license broadcaster institutions, content providers, platforms) and the resistance to political and commercial interference in the autonomy of the media sector are both considered as significant components of media independence. In order to ensure media independence, regulatory authorities should be placed outside of governments' directives. This can be measured through legislation, agency statutes and rules. [10]

Government regulations

Licensing

In the United States, the Radio Act of 1927 established that the radio frequency spectrum was public property. This prohibited private organizations from owning any portion of the spectrum. [11] A broadcast license is typically given to broadcasters by communications regulators, allowing them to broadcast on a certain frequency and typically in a specific geographical location. Licensing is done by regulators in order to manage a broadcasting medium and as a method to prevent the concentration of media ownership. [12]

Licensing has been criticized for an alleged lack of transparency. Regulatory authorities in certain countries have been accused of exhibiting political bias in favor of the government or ruling party, which has resulted in some prospective broadcasters being denied licenses or being threatened with license withdrawal. As a consequence, there has been a decrease in diversity of content and views in certain countries due to actions made against broadcasters by states via their licensing authorities. This can have an impact on competition and may lead to an excessive concentration of power with potential influence on public opinion. [13] Examples include the failure to renew or retain licenses for editorially critical media, reducing the regulator's competences and mandates for action, and a lack of due process in the adoption of regulatory decisions. [14]

Government endorsed appointments

State control is also evident in the increasing politicization of regulatory bodies operationalized through transfers and appointments of party-aligned individuals to senior positions in regulatory authorities. Anatol Lieven in his book explains how Pakistan, a less economically developed country, regulated it's media in 1980's. [15]

Internet regulation

. [10]

Self-regulation

At the regional level

In Western Europe, self-regulation provides an alternative to state regulatory authorities. In such contexts, newspapers have historically been free of licensing and regulation, and there has been repeated pressure for them to self-regulate or at least to have in-house ombudsmen. However, it has often been difficult to establish meaningful self-regulatory entities.

In many cases, self-regulations exists in the shadow of state regulation, and is conscious of the possibility of state intervention. In many countries in Central and Eastern Europe, self-regulatory structures seems to be lacking or have not historically been perceived as efficient and effective. [16]

The rise of satellite channels that delivered directly to viewers, or through cable or online systems, renders much larger the sphere of unregulated programing. There are, however, varying efforts to regulate the access of programmers to satellite transponders in parts of the Western Europe, North America, the Arab region and in Asia and the Pacific. The Arab Satellite Broadcasting Charter was an example of efforts to bring formal standards and some regulatory authority to bear on what is transmitted, but it appears to not have been implemented. [17]

International organizations and NGOs

Self-regulation is expressed as a preferential system by journalists but also as a support for media freedom and development organizations by intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO and non-governmental organizations. There has been a continued trend of establishing self-regulatory bodies, such as press councils, in conflict and post-conflict situations. [18]

Major internet companies have responded to pressure by governments and the public by elaborating self-regulatory and complaints systems at the individual company level, using principles they have developed under the framework of the Global Network Initiative. The Global Network Initiative has grown to include several large telecom companies alongside internet companies such as Google, Facebook and others, as well as civil society organizations and academics. [19]

The European Commission's 2013 publication, ICT Technology Sector Guide on Implementing the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, impacts on the presence of independent journalism by defining the limits of what should or should not be carried and prioritized in the most popular digital spaces. [20]

Private sector

Ranking Digital Rights indicator scores for policy transparency in regards to third-party requests for content or account restriction RDR indicator scores for policy transparency in regards to third-party requests for content or account restriction.png
Ranking Digital Rights indicator scores for policy transparency in regards to third-party requests for content or account restriction
Ranking Digital Rights indicator scores for policy transparency in regard to their terms of service enforcement (which impact upon content or account restrictions) Ranking Digital Rights 2015.jpg
Ranking Digital Rights indicator scores for policy transparency in regard to their terms of service enforcement (which impact upon content or account restrictions)

Public pressure on technology giants has motivated the development of new strategies aimed not only at identifying 'fake news', but also at eliminating some of the structural causes of their emergence and proliferation. Facebook has created new buttons for users to report content they believe is false, following previous strategies aimed at countering hate speech and harassment online. These changes reflect broader transformations occurring among tech giants to increase their transparency. As indicated by the Ranking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index, most large internet companies have reportedly become relatively more forthcoming in terms of their policies about transparency in regard to third party requests to remove or access content, especially in the case of requests from governments. [21] [22] At the same time, however, the study signaled a number of companies that have become more opaque when it comes to disclosing how they enforce their own terms of service, in restricting certain types of content and account. [22] State governments can also use "Fake news" in order to spread propaganda. [23]

Fact-checking and news literacy

In addition to responding to pressure for more clearly defined self-regulatory mechanisms, and galvanized by the debates over so-called 'fake news', internet companies such as Facebook have launched campaigns to educate users about how to more easily distinguish between 'fake news' and real news sources. Ahead of the United Kingdom national election in 2017, for example, Facebook published a series of advertisements in newspapers with 'Tips for Spotting False News' which suggested 10 things that might signal whether a story is genuine or not. [24] There have also been broader initiatives bringing together a variety of donors and actors to promote fact-checking and news literacy, such as the News Integrity Initiative at the City University of New York's School of Journalism. This 14 million USD investment by groups including the Ford Foundation and Facebook was launched in 2017 so its full impact remains to be seen. It will, however, complement the offerings of other networks such as the International Fact-Checking Network launched by the Poynter Institute in 2015 which seeks to outline the parameters of the field. [25] Instagram has also created a way to potentially expose "fake news" that is posted on the site. After looking into the site, it seemed as more than a place for political memes, but a weaponized platform, instead of the creative space it used to be. [26] Since that, Instagram has started to put warning labels on certain stories or posts if third-party fact checkers believe that false information is being spread. [27]  Instagram works with these fact checkers to ensure that no false information is being spread around the site. [28] Instagram started this work in 2019, following Facebook with the idea as they started fact checking in 2016. [28]

Electronic media

Developments in telecommunications has provided media the ability to conduct long-distance communication via analog and digital media:

Modern communication media includes long-distance exchanges between larger numbers of people (many-to-many communication via email, Internet forums, and telecommunications ports). Traditional broadcast media and mass media favor one-to-many communication (television, cinema, radio, newspaper, magazines, and social media). [29] [30]

Social Media

Electronic Media, specifically social media has become one of the top forms of media that people use in the twenty-first century. The percent of people that use social media and social networking outlets went from 5% in 2005 to 79% in 2019. Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, Tiktok, and Facebook are all the most commonly used social media platforms. The average time that an individual spends on social media is 2.5 hours a day. With the exponential increase of social media it has also caused a change in which people communicate with others as well as receive information. About 53% use social media to read/watch the news. [31]

Gaming

Online

The gaming community has grown exponentially, and about 63% have taken to playing with others, whether online or in-person. [32] Players online will communicate through the system of microphone applicability either through the game or a third party application such as Discord. The improvements upon connectivity and software allowed for players online to keep in touch and game instantaneously, disregarding location almost entirely.

Age

Gaming is an activity shared amongst others regardless of age, allowing for a diverse group of players to connect and enjoy their favorite games with. This helps with creating or maintaining relationships: friendships, family, or a significant other. [32]

Ratings and content

As with most interactive media content, games have ratings to assist in choosing appropriate games regarding younger audiences. This is done by ESRB ratings and consists of the following: E for Everyone, E for Everyone 10+, T for Teen, and M for Mature 17+. Whenever a new game is released, it is reviewed by associations to determine a suitable rating so younger audiences do not consume harmful or inappropriate content. [32]

Reach

The usage and consumption of gaming has tremendously increased within the last decade with estimates of around 2.3 billion people from around the world playing digital and online video games. [33] The growth rate for the global market for gaming was expected to grow 6.2% towards 2020. Areas like Latin America had a 20.1% increase, Asia-Pacific - 9.2%, North America - 4.0%, and Europe -11.7%. [34]

Communication

Studies show that digital and online gaming can be used as a communication method to aid in scientific research and create interaction. The narrative, layout, and gaming features all share a relationship that can deliver meaning and value that make games an innovative communication tool. [35] Research-focused games showed a connection towards a greater usage of dialogue within the science community as players had the opportunity to address issues with a game with themselves and scientists. This helped to push the understanding of how gaming and players can help advance scientific research via communication through games. [36]

vBook

A vBook is an eBook that is digital first media with embedded video, images, graphs, tables, text, and other useful media. [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mass media</span> Media that can reach a large audience via mass communication

Mass media includes the diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication.

Telecommunications in Tanzania include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet available in mainland Tanzania and the semiautonomous Zanzibar archipelago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digital media</span> Any media that are encoded in machine-readable formats

In mass communication, digital media is any communication media that operates in conjunction with various encoded machine-readable data formats. Digital content can be created, viewed, distributed, modified, listened to, and preserved on a digital electronic device, including digital data storage media and digital broadcasting. Digital is defined as any data represented by a series of digits, and media refers to methods of broadcasting or communicating this information. Together, digital media refers to mediums of digitized information broadcast through a screen and/or a speaker. This also includes text, audio, video, and graphics that are transmitted over the internet for viewing or listening to on the internet.

Independent media refers to any media, such as television, newspapers, or Internet-based publications, that is free of influence by government or corporate interests. The term has varied applications.

The Poynter Institute for Media Studies is a non-profit journalism school and research organization in St. Petersburg, Florida, United States. The school is the owner of the Tampa Bay Times newspaper and the International Fact-Checking Network. It also operates PolitiFact.

Television in Pakistan started in 1964 and the first live transmission of Pakistan Television began on 26 November 1964, in Lahore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social media</span> Virtual online communities

Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the creation, sharing and aggregation of content, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression through virtual communities and networks. Social media refer to new forms of media that involve interactive participation. While challenges to the definition of social media arise due to the variety of stand-alone and built-in social media services currently available, there are some common features:

  1. Social media apps are online platforms that enable users to create and share content and participate in social networking.
  2. User-generated content—such as text posts or comments, digital photos or videos, and data generated through all online interactions—is the lifeblood of social media.
  3. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and maintained by the social media organization.
  4. Social media helps the development of online social networks by connecting a user's profile with those of other individuals or groups.

The Center for Countering Digital Hate (CCDH), formerly Brixton Endeavors, is a British not-for-profit NGO company with offices in London and Washington, D.C. with the stated purpose of stopping the spread of online hate speech and disinformation. It campaigns to deplatform people that it believes promote hate or misinformation, and campaigns to restrict media organisations such as The Daily Wire from advertising. CCDH is a member of the Stop Hate For Profit coalition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Facebook</span> Social-networking service owned by Meta Platforms

Facebook is a social media and social networking service owned by the American technology conglomerate Meta. Created in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with four other Harvard College students and roommates Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin Moskovitz, and Chris Hughes, its name derives from the face book directories often given to American university students. Membership was initially limited to Harvard students, gradually expanding to other North American universities. Since 2006, Facebook allows everyone to register from 13 years old, except in the case of a handful of nations, where the age limit is 14 years. As of December 2022, Facebook claimed almost 3 billion monthly active users. As of October 2023, Facebook ranked as the 3rd most visited website in the world, with 22.56% of its traffic coming from the United States. It was the most downloaded mobile app of the 2010s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Media Development Authority</span> Statutory board in Singapore

The Media Development Authority was a statutory board of the Singapore Government, under the Ministry of Communications and Information (MCI).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet in Afghanistan</span> Overview of the Internet in Afghanistan

Internet in Afghanistan is available in all of its 34 provinces, and is used by over 9 million people as of 2022. The internet officially became available in 2002 during the presidency of Hamid Karzai. Prior to that year, it was prohibited because the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan believed that it may be used to broadcast obscene, immoral and anti-Islamic material, and because the few internet users at the time could not be easily monitored as they obtained their telephone lines from neighboring Pakistan.

Experts from many different fields have conducted research and held debates about how using social media affects mental health. Research suggests that mental health issues arising from social media use affect women more than men and vary according to the particular social media platform used, although it does affect every age and gender demographic in different ways. Psychological or behavioural dependence on social media platforms can result in significant negative functions in individuals' daily lives. Studies show there are several negative effects that social media can have on individuals' mental health and overall well-being. While researchers have attempted to examine why and how social media is problematic, they still struggle to develop evidence-based recommendations on how they would go about offering potential solutions to this issue. Because social media is constantly evolving, researchers also struggle with whether the disorder of problematic social media use would be considered a separate clinical entity or a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. These disorders can be diagnosed when an individual engages in online content/conversations rather than pursuing other interests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canadian online media</span>

Canadian online media is content aimed at a Canadian audience through the medium of the Internet. Presently, online media can be accessed by computers, smart-phones, gaming consoles, Smart TVs, MP3 players, and tablets. The characteristics of Canadian online media are strongly shaped by the Canadian communications industry, even though their statistics and findings are more often than not associated with American research. Large media companies are increasingly on the move to start up online platforms for news and television content. The exponential growth of Canadians' dependency on online content for entertainment and information has been evident in the recent decades. However, it has proven slow for Canadian online media to catch up with the constant increase of American online media. Regardless of medium, entertainment and information hubs are not solely focusing on satisfying the audience they have, but are also heavily expanding their reach to new global audiences.

Mass media regulations are a form of media policy with rules enforced by the jurisdiction of law. Guidelines for media use differ across the world. This regulation, via law, rules or procedures, can have various goals, for example intervention to protect a stated "public interest", or encouraging competition and an effective media market, or establishing common technical standards.

Internet filtering in Indonesia was deemed "substantial" in the social arena, "selective" in the political and internet tools arenas, and there was no evidence of filtering in the conflict/security arena by the OpenNet Initiative in 2011 based on testing done during 2009 and 2010. Testing also showed that Internet filtering in Indonesia is unsystematic and inconsistent, illustrated by the differences found in the level of filtering between ISPs. Indonesia was rated "partly free" in Freedom on the Net 2020 with a score of 49, midway between the end of the "free" range at 30 and the start of the "not free" range at 60.

A troll farm or troll factory is an institutionalised group of internet trolls that seeks to interfere in political opinions and decision-making.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Media pluralism</span> Plurality of voices, opinions, and analyses in media systems

Media pluralism defines the state of having a plurality of voices, opinions, and analyses in media systems or the coexistence of different and diverse types of medias and media support.

Diem was a permissioned blockchain-based stablecoin payment system proposed by the American social media company Facebook. The plan also included a private currency implemented as a cryptocurrency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media</span>

Social media became an active place to interact during the COVID-19 pandemic following the onset of social distancing. Overall messaging rates had risen up by above 50%, according to a study by Facebook's analytics department. Individuals at home used social media to maintain their relationships and access entertainment to pass time faster.

References

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  14. ↑ Buckley, Steve, Kreszentia Duer, Toby Mendel, and Sean O. Siochru. 2008. Broadcasting, Voice, and Accountability : A Public Interest Approach to Policy, Law, and Regulation. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  15. ↑ Lieven, A., 2012. "Politics," in Pakistan: A Hard Country, pp. 229–230.
  16. ↑ Fengler, Susanne, Tobias Eberwein, Salvador Alsius, Olivier Baisnée, Klaus Bichler, Boguslawa Dobek-Ostrowska, Huub Evers, et al. 2015. How effective is media self-regulation? Results from a comparative survey of European journalists. European Journal of Communication 30 (3): 249–266.
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  18. ↑ Lewis, David (2014). Non-Governmental Organizations, Management and Development. Oxfordshire, England, UK: Routledge. pp. 25, 71, 155.
  19. ↑ "Global Network Initiative Adds Seven Companies in Milestone Expansion of Freedom of Expression and Privacy Initiative" (Press release). Global Network Initiative. March 28, 2017. Archived from the original on Jun 8, 2023.
  20. ↑ Shift and Institute for Human Rights and Business (2013). "ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights" (PDF) (Report). European Commission. Archived (PDF) from the original on Dec 4, 2023.
  21. ↑ "Ranking Digital Rights". Corporate Accountability Index. 2015. Archived from the original on 2020-11-10. Retrieved 2018-07-05.
  22. 1 2 "Ranking Digital Rights". Corporate Accountability Index. 2017. Archived from the original on 2020-12-12. Retrieved 2018-07-05.
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  27. ↑ "Help Center". help.instagram.com. Archived from the original on 2022-11-22. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
  28. 1 2 Harrison, Sara. "Instagram Now Fact-Checks, but Who Will Do the Checking?". Wired. ISSN   1059-1028 . Retrieved 2022-11-22.
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  30. ↑ "1 to Many, Many to Many and Many to 1 – for PR and Inbound". Imre. 11 January 2018. Archived from the original on 23 February 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
  31. ↑ Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban; Roser, Max (2023-03-20). "The rise of social media". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 2023-04-09. Retrieved 2023-04-21.
  32. 1 2 3 "2019 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry" (PDF). Entertainment Software Association. 2019. pp. 4–13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  33. ↑ Wijman, T. (April 30, 2018). "Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018". Newzoo.
  34. ↑ McDonald, E (April 20, 2017). "The Global Games Market Will Reach $108.9 Billion in 2017 With Mobile Taking 42%". Newzoo.
  35. ↑ Ouariachi, Olvera-Lobo, Gutierrez-Perez, T., M. D., J. (2017). "Analyzing climate change communication through online games: development and application of validated criteria". Science Communication. 39 (1): 10–44. doi:10.1177/1075547016687998. S2CID   151746669. Archived from the original on 2023-04-21. Retrieved 2023-04-21.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Curtis, V. (2014). "Public engagement through the development of science-based computer games: the Wellcome Trust's "Gamify your PhD" initiative". Science Communication. 36 (3): 379–387. doi:10.1177/1075547013492436. S2CID   53590587. Archived from the original on 2023-04-21. Retrieved 2023-04-21.
  37. ↑ "A vBook (Video Book) is the New Alternative to an eBook".

Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0 IGO( license statement/permission ). Text taken from World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018​ , 202, UNESCO.

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