Information and media literacy

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Information and media literacy (IML) is a combination of information literacy and media literacy. [1] It enables people to show and make informed judgments as users of information and media, as well as to become skillful creators and producers of information and media messages. [2] The transformative nature of IML includes creative works and creating new knowledge; to publish and collaborate responsibly requires ethical, cultural and social understanding.

Contents

IML is also known as media and information literacy (MIL). [3] UNESCO first adopted the term MIL in 2008 [4] as a "composite concept" combining the competencies of information literacy and media literacy. [5] UNESCO emphasizes the importance of global education in media and information literacy, and in 2013 defined Media and Information Literacy (MIL) as the ability to access, evaluate, use, and create information and media content in critical and ethical ways. [6]

Prior to the 1990s, the primary focus of information literacy was research skills. [7] Media literacy, a study that emerged around the 1970s, traditionally focuses on the analysis and the delivery of information through various forms of media. [8] Information literacy, as a skill proposed as early as 1974, centers on an individual's ability to recognize information needs and effectively locate, evaluate, and use information. [9] These days, the study of information literacy has been extended to include the study of media literacy in many countries like the UK, [10] Australia and New Zealand. [11] It is also referred to as information and communication technologies (ICT) in the United States. [12] [13] Educators such as Gregory Ulmer have also defined the field as electracy.Media literacy is the ability to actively inquire into and think critically about information. It includes the ability to understand, evaluate, and create media content, and is an essential skill in today’s information society. [9] Livingstone, Van Couvering, and Thumim (2008) described the distinction between media literacy and information literacy: "Media literacy views media as lenses or windows for observing the world and expressing the self, whereas information literacy sees information as a tool for taking action in the world." [14]

Integration of media and information literacy

Historically, the fields of information and media literacy have been separate, but over the course of the 21st century there have been calls to integrate both fields. Most definitions of information and media literacy include not only the abilities to locate, access, and analyze information but also the ability to create information. Only by integrating media literacy with information literacy can students better understand the sources of information and how it is used. [15] Media education has primarily taken place in educational institutions, while information education has primarily occurred in libraries. [16] Discussions surrounding the overlap of information literacy and media literacy came to fruition in the mid-to-late 2000s and 2010s as noted by Marcus Leaning. [17]

In the digital age

The definition of literacy is "the ability to read and write". [18] In practice many more skills are needed to locate, critically assess and make effective use of information. [19] By extension, literacy now also includes the ability to manage and interact with digital information and media, in personal, shared and public domains. [20] [21] [22] [23]

Historically, "information literacy" has largely been seen from the relatively top-down, organisational viewpoint of library and information sciences. [24] However the same term is also used to describe a generic "information literacy" skill. [24]

The modern digital age has led to the proliferation of information spread across the Internet. Individuals must be able to recognize whether information is true or false and better yet know how to locate, evaluate, use, and communicate information in various formats; [25] this is called information literacy.

Towards the end of the 20th century, literacy was redefined to include "new literacies" relating to the new skills needed in everyday experience. [23] [19] "Multiliteracies" recognised the multiplicity of literacies, which were often used in combination. [26] [23] [19] "21st century skills" frameworks link new literacies to wider life skills such as creativity, critical thinking, accountability. [27] [23]

What these approaches have in common is a focus on the multiple skills needed by individuals to navigate changing personal, professional and public "information landscapes". [23] [24] [28] [19] [29]

As the conventional definition of literacy itself continues to evolve among practitioners, [30] so too has the definition of information literacies. Noteworthy definitions include:

21st-century students

In modern society, although the overall level of education has improved, the channels for knowledge production and dissemination have become increasingly diverse and commercialized, and traditional authoritative institutions no longer hold a monopoly over knowledge validation. While digital platforms have broadened access to information, they have also weakened trust mechanisms and evaluation standards, making epistemological skepticism a norm. Moreover, with the rise and spread of social media, misinformation and disinformation can be just as easily accessed in both densely and sparsely populated areas. These factors further underscore the importance of information literacy education. [32]

The IML learning capacities prepare students to be 21st century literate. According to Jeff Wilhelm (2000), "technology has everything to do with literacy. And being able to use the latest electronic technologies has everything to do with being literate." [33] He supports his argument with J. David Bolter's statement that "if our students are not reading and composing with various electronic technologies, then they are illiterate. They are not just unprepared for the future; they are illiterate right now, in our current time and context". [34] In a broader sense, developing this advanced competency of media and information literacy is essential, as it is crucial for students to exercise their freedom of expression in the 21st century. [32]

Wilhelm's statement is supported by the 2005 Wired World Phase II (YCWW II) survey conducted by the Media Awareness Network of Canada [35] on 5000 Grade 4 – 11 students. [36] The key findings of the survey were:

Marc Prensky (2001) uses the term "digital native" to describe people who have been brought up in a digital world. [38] The Internet has been a pervasive element of young people's home lives. 94% of kids reported that they had Internet access at home, and a significant majority (61%) had a high-speed connection.

By the time kids reach Grade 11, half of them (51 percent) have their own Internet-connected computer, separate and apart from the family computer. [39] The survey also showed that young Canadians are now among the most wired in the world. Contrary to the earlier stereotype of the isolated and awkward computer nerd, today's wired kid is a social kid. [40]

In general, many students are better networked through the use of technology than most teachers and parents, who may not understand the abilities of technology. Students are no longer limited to desktop computer. They may use mobile technologies to graph mathematical problems, research a question for social studies, text message an expert for information, or send homework to a drop box. [41] Students are accessing information by using MSN, personal Web pages, Weblogs and social networking sites.

In reality, students often lack training in critical thinking and argumentation, and their ability to express viewpoints through digital media is uneven. In particular, they tend to have weak skills in multimodal expression—such as creating videos, podcasts, or dialogue-based content—which limits their ability to engage with diverse perspectives and skeptics in digital environments. This is why integrating media and information literacy training into education is imperative. [15]

UNESCO provides the “Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers,” aimed at helping educators and librarians prepare to teach media and information literacy to students. The curriculum can serve as a model course and be adapted locally based on the current information landscape to support better understanding of information. [42]

Teaching and learning in the 21st century

As Len Masterman said, "The challenge for today’s teachers—most of whom are digital immigrants—is how to continue delivering the legacy content of the old curriculum while also providing future-oriented content that helps students prepare for life in the 21st century." (Alessia Zanin-Yost & Freie, 2020) In order to effectively engage digital-native students, educators must not only become proficient in digital communication but also adopt the modes of thinking and interaction that align with the digital culture of today's learners. [43]

The terms “digital natives” and “digital immigrants” were first introduced by Prensky, who argued that digital natives are inherently familiar with digital media. In today’s world, young people undoubtedly belong to this group. Their way of thinking differs from previous generations—they tend to prefer multitasking, visual learning, random access to information, instant feedback, and gamified formats. [43]

However, Neil Selwyn criticized the notion of “digital natives” as an overly generalized label lacking empirical support. He pointed out that young people’s digital behavior varies greatly and that their technological competence is more strongly influenced by educational background and social resources. [44]

Learning any language is best done early in a child's development. In acquiring a second language, Hyltenstam (1992) found that around the age of 6 and 7 seemed to be a cut-off point for bilinguals to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, second language learners could get near-native-like-ness but their language would, while consisting of very few actual errors, have enough errors that would set them apart from the first language group. Although more recent research suggests this impact still exists up to 10 years of age. [45] [46]

Kindergarten and grades 1 and 2 are therefore critical to student success as digital natives because not all students have a "digital"-rich childhood. Students learning technological skills before Grade 3 can become equivalently bilingual. Some researchers have found that "Language-minority students who cannot read and write proficiently in English cannot participate fully in American schools, workplaces, or society. They face limited job opportunities and earning power." [47] [48]

In the curriculum

Information and Media Literacy has been embraced in the curriculum in order to develop the strategies needed for informed, critical, and engaged individuals and citizens. Organizations such as the European Commission and UNESCO have been promoting initiatives and providing instructional documentation about the curricular integration of IML. [49]

Europe and Central Asia

Europe

United Kingdom

In the UK, education of Information and Media Literacy is typically introduced through mainstream formal education in secondary, further and higher education curriculum (such as Media Studies classes), broader curriculum or extra-curricular activity (such as literacy education or Citizenship), e-safety policies, or computer and information literacy/education outside of the formal educational system. [50]

IML has been promoted among educators through an information literacy website [51] developed by several organizations that have been involved in the field. Ofcom, or the Office of Communications, is another organization that researches and promotes IML in the UK. [52]

France

In France, the development of media and information literacy is officially supported by the Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of Education. Their policies promote the integration of media literacy into public libraries and schools, and support the country’s central media literacy institution — CLEMI (Centre for Media and Information Education). [53]

Germany

In Germany, with the backing of national policies, the importance of media education has been integrated into school curricula, although the level of adoption varies across federal states. [53]

Finland

Finland has systematically integrated information and media literacy into its national curriculum, emphasizing critical thinking, media analysis, and digital citizenship at all educational levels from primary to upper secondary school. This education is delivered through an interdisciplinary approach, spanning language, social studies, and technology courses, and is supported by the National Audiovisual Institute, which provides resources and guidance to build a comprehensive and robust educational framework. [54]

Central Asia

Kazakhstan

A study published in the Journal of Curriculum Studies Research in 2025 pointed out that Kazakhstani schools need to integrate media literacy education across all grades and subjects, supported by appropriate policies, resource allocation, and teacher professional development. [55]

Kyrgyzstan

At the AMICAL education conference, twelve universities in Kyrgyzstan attempted to formally integrate media literacy courses into the higher education curriculum, requiring all instructors to undergo relevant training. The conference included summaries and discussions of the problems and challenges encountered during the development and implementation processes. [56]

North America

United States

IML is included in the Partnership for the 21st Century program sponsored by the US Department of Education. [57] Special mandates have been provided to Arizona, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, New Jersey, Massachusetts, North Carolina, South Dakota, West Virginia and Wisconsin. [58] Individual school districts, such as the Clarkstown Central School District, [59] have also developed their own information literacy curriculum. ISTE has also produced the National Educational Technology Standards for Students, Teachers and Administrators.

Canada

In British Columbia, Canada, the Ministry of Education has de-listed the Information Technology K to 7 IRP [60] as a stand-alone course. It is still expected that all the prescribed learning outcomes continue to be integrated. Unfortunately, there has been no clear direction to implement IML.

The BC Ministry of Education published the Information and Communications Technology Integration Performance Standards, Grades 5 to 10 ICTI in 2005. [61] These standards provide performance standards expectations for Grade 5 to 10; however, they do not provide guidance for other grades, and the expectation for a Grade 5 and Grade 10 student are the same.

Latin America

Mexico

UNESCO founded the Network for Media and Information Literacy in Mexico in August 2021. This was project aimed to introduce a pathway for academia, government/civil organizations, and other institutions to promote the spread of media and information literacy skills. The MIL Network Mexico focused on making visible the issues surrounding MIL in Mexico, such as disinformation and hate speech. This focus on visibility also promotes to aid in developing appropriate MIL skills across disenfranchised groups, teens and young adults, and key figures that amplify the spread of information like journalists and educators.

There are multiple members of the MIL Network Mexico that actively promote its mission: UNESCO MILID CHAIR UDG, DW Akademie, Instituto Mexicano de la Radio (IMER), Instituto Nacional Electoral (INE), SocialTIC, Universidad Autonóma de Nuevo León, Universidad Veracruzana, and UNESCO México. [62]

Peru

Medios Claros conducted a pilot training in 2009. The study found that while students had an intuitive understanding of media influence, they lacked systematic concepts and methods, and there was no sustained follow-up afterward. Experts have called for integrating media and information literacy with the "Educomunicación" approach through teacher professional development to embed it into classroom practice. [63]

Middle East and North Africa

In the Arab region, media and information literacy was largely ignored up until 2011, when the Media Studies Program at the American University of Beirut, the Open Society Foundations and the Arab-US Association for Communication Educators (AUSACE) launched a regional conference themed "New Directions: Digital and Media Literacy". The conference attracted significant attention from Arab universities and scholars, who discussed obstacles and needs to advance media literacy in the Arab region, including developing curricula in Arabic, training faculty and promoting the field. [64]

Following up on that recommendation, the Media Studies Program at AUB and the Open Society Foundations in collaboration with the Salzburg Academy on Media and Global Change launched in 2013 the first regional initiative to develop, vitalize, and advance media literacy education in the Arab region. The Media and Digital Literacy Academy of Beirut (MDLAB) offered an annual two-week summer training program in addition to working year-round to develop media literacy curricula and programs. The academy is conducted in Arabic and English and brings pioneering international instructors and professionals to teach advanced digital and media literacy concepts to young Arab academics and graduate students from various fields. MDLAB hopes that the participating Arab academics will carry what they learned to their countries and institutions and offers free curricular material in Arabic and English, including media literacy syllabi, lectures, exercises, lesson plans, and multi-media material, to assist and encourage the integration of digital and media literacy into Arab university and school curricula. [64]

In recognition of MDLAB's accomplishments in advancing media literacy education in the Arab region, the founder of MDLAB received the 2015 UNESCO-UNAOC International Media and Information Literacy Award. [65]

Prior to 2013, only two Arab universities offered media literacy courses: the American University of Beirut (AUB) and the American University of Sharjah (AUS). Three years after the launch of MDLAB, over two dozen Arab universities incorporated media literacy education into their curricula, both as stand-alone courses or as modules injected into their existing media courses. Among the universities who have full-fledged media literacy courses (as of 2015) are Lebanese American University (Lebanon), Birzeit University (Palestine), University of Balamand (Lebanon), Damascus University (Syria), Rafik Hariri University (Lebanon), Notre Dame University (Lebanon), Ahram Canadian University (Egypt), American University of Beirut (Lebanon), American University of Sharjah (UAE), and Al Azm University (Lebanon). The first Arab school to adopt media literacy as part of its strategic plan is the International College (IC) in Lebanon. Efforts to introduce media literacy to the region's other universities and schools continues with the help of other international organizations, such as UNESCO, UNAOC, AREACORE, DAAD, and OSF. [66]

East Asia and Pacific

In Singapore [67] and Hong Kong, [68] information literacy or information technology was listed as a formal curriculum.

Japan

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication (MIC) are two governmental ministries in Japan that are actively promoting Media and Information Literacy education. MEXT has set national curriculum guidelines surrounding use of information and communication technologies by students. MIC produces media literacy materials for formal and informal settings, as well as organized a study group to research "internet governance" for platforms and their services. [69]

Thailand

In 2003, as UNESCO promoted Media and Information Literacy education, media literacy was incorporated into the core curriculum of primary and secondary schools and in some higher education institutions in Thailand. [69]

The Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Digital Economy and Society, Prasert Chantarawongthong, announced nine key initiatives for 2025 focused on enhancing digital literacy, bridging the digital divide, improving safety in digital interactions, and building public confidence in the digital ecosystem. [70]

Barriers

One barrier to learning to read is the lack of books, while a barrier to learning IML is the lack of technology access. The development of media and information literacy faces multiple obstacles, including insufficient digital skills among teachers and students, lack of effective training and technical support, weak school equipment and network infrastructure, limited leadership and policy support, and disparities in students’ socioeconomic backgrounds. These factors collectively affect the effective integration and equitable implementation of technology in education. [71]

Although a large amount of funding has been invested, the integration of technology and education still faces challenges. According to surveys and interviews, hardware is not the biggest obstacle to technology integration; the main issues lie in training, content support, incentive systems, and resource inequality. Especially for teachers, demonstration training institutions do not provide professional guidance, while the national education ministry requires teachers to have the ability to use new technologies in their work. [72]

Public opinion remains divided on the use of mobile phones in schools. While some believe that mobile devices lead to distraction, cyberbullying, and negative mental health outcomes among students, [73] others point to their potential educational value when integrated appropriately.

Educators are increasingly expected to use technology to diversify instruction and improve communication, yet the disruptive potential of social media in classrooms has led to growing calls for restrictions. In response, Ontario implemented a school-wide mobile phone ban in September 2024. [74]

However, researchers caution that banning phones entirely may not resolve core issues related to digital behavior and student well-being. Studies suggest that structured integration of mobile technology—combined with instruction in digital literacy and civic responsibility—may offer more sustainable educational outcomes. [75]

Key information literacies

Information literacies are the multiple literacies individuals may need to function effectively in the global information society. [24] The following are key information literacies.

Critical literacy

This section is an excerpt from Critical literacy.[ edit ]

Critical literacy is the application of critical social theory to literacy. [76] Critical literacy finds embedded discrimination in media [77] [78] by analyzing the messages promoting prejudiced power relationships found naturally in media and written material that go unnoticed otherwise by reading beyond the author's words and examining the manner in which the author has conveyed their ideas about society's norms to determine whether these ideas contain racial or gender inequality. [77]

Computer literacy

This section is an excerpt from Computer literacy.[ edit ]
Children using a laptop computer at school (2008) Children at school (8720604364).jpg
Children using a laptop computer at school (2008)

Computer literacy is defined as the knowledge and ability to use computers and related technology efficiently, with skill levels ranging from elementary use to computer programming and advanced problem solving. Computer literacy can also refer to the comfort level someone has with using computer programs and applications. Another valuable component is understanding how computers work and operate. Computer literacy may be distinguished from computer programming, which primarily focuses on the design and coding of computer programs rather than the familiarity and skill in their use. [79] Various countries, including the United Kingdom and the United States, have created initiatives to improve national computer literacy rates.

Data literacy

This section is an excerpt from Data literacy.[ edit ]

Data literacy is the ability to read, understand, create, and communicate data as information. Much like literacy as a general concept, data literacy focuses on the competencies involved in working with data. [80] It is, however, not similar to the ability to read text since it requires certain skills involving reading and understanding data. [81]

Data literacy refers to the ability to understand, interpret, critically evaluate, and effectively communicate data in context to inform decisions and drive action. It is not a technical skill but a fundamental capability for everyone, encompassing the skills and mindset necessary to transform raw data into meaningful insights and apply these insights within real-world scenarios. [82]

Digital literacy

This section is an excerpt from Digital literacy.[ edit ]
A teacher and his students in a computer lab A. Stuart and Students.jpg
A teacher and his students in a computer lab

Digital literacy is an individual's ability to find, evaluate, and communicate information using typing or digital media platforms. Digital literacy combines technical and cognitive abilities; it consists of using information and communication technologies to create, evaluate, and share information, [83] or critically examining the social and political impacts of information and communication technologies. [84]

Digital literacy initially focused on digital skills and stand-alone computers, but the advent of the internet and social media use has shifted some of its focus to mobile devices. [85]

Financial literacy

This section is an excerpt from Financial literacy.[ edit ]

Financial literacy is the possession of skills, knowledge, and behaviors that allow an individual to make informed decisions regarding money. Financial literacy, financial education, and financial knowledge are used interchangeably. [86] Financially unsophisticated individuals cannot plan financially because of their poor financial knowledge. Financially sophisticated individuals are good at financial calculations; for example they understand compound interest, which helps them to engage in low-credit borrowing. Most of the time, unsophisticated individuals pay high costs for their debt borrowing. [87]

Health literacy

This section is an excerpt from Health literacy.[ edit ]

Health literacy is the ability to obtain, read, understand, and use healthcare information in order to make appropriate health decisions and follow instructions for treatment. [88] There are multiple definitions of health literacy, [89] in part because health literacy involves both the context (or setting) in which health literacy demands are made (e.g., health care, media, internet or fitness facility) and the skills that people bring to that situation. [90]

Media literacy

This section is an excerpt from Media literacy.[ edit ]

Examples of media literacy include reflecting on one's media choices, [91] identifying sponsored content, [92] recognizing stereotypes, [93] analyzing propaganda [94] and discussing the benefits, risks, and harms of media use. [95] Critical analysis skills can be developed through practices like constructivist media decoding [96] and lateral reading, [97] which entails looking at multiple perspectives in assessing the quality of a particular piece of media. [98] Media literacy also includes the ability to create and share messages as a socially responsible communicator, and the practices of safety and civility, information access, and civic voice and engagement are sometimes referred to as digital citizenship. [99]

Transliteracy

This section an excerpt from Transliteracy.[ edit ]

Transliteracy is "a fluidity of movement across a range of technologies, media and contexts". [100] [101] It is an ability to use diverse techniques to collaborate across different social groups. [102]

Transliteracy combines a range of capabilities required to move across a range of contexts, media, technologies and genres. [101] Conceptually, transliteracy is situated across five capabilities: information capabilities (see information literacy), ICT (information and communication technologies), communication and collaboration, creativity and critical thinking. It is underpinned by literacy and numeracy. [101] (See figure below) The concept of transliteracy is impacting the system of education and libraries. [103] [104]

Visual literacy

This section is an excerpt from Visual literacy.[ edit ]

Visual literacy is the ability to interpret, negotiate, and make meaning from information presented in the form of an image, extending the meaning of literacy, which commonly signifies interpretation of a written or printed text. Visual literacy is based on the idea that pictures can be "read" and that meaning can be discovered through a process of reading. [105]

Web literacy

This section is an excerpt from Web literacy.[ edit ]

Web literacy encompasses the skills and competencies needed for reading, writing, and participating on the World Wide Web. [106] It has been described as "both content and activity" meaning that web users should not just learn about the web but also about how to make their own website. [107]

See also

References

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