Media psychology

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Media psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the interactions between human behavior, media, and technology. Media psychology is not limited to mass media or media content; it includes all forms of mediated communication and media technology-related behaviors, such as the use, design, impact, and sharing behaviors. This branch is a relatively new field of study because of technological advancements. It uses various critical analysis and investigation methods to develop a working model of a user's perception of media experience. These methods are employed for society as a whole and individually. Media psychologists can perform activities that include consulting, design, and production in various media like television, video games, films, and news broadcasting.

Contents

The field of media psychology explores how recent, newer social media apps like Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat have become more popular and how they are creating new media and mental health challenges that are not widely researched. Newer apps like Instagram and Snapchat have changed how people consume media, communicate, and deal with their self-image. These social media platforms have introduced complex mental dynamics that may contribute to mental health challenges like negative body image, depression, and anxiety, which could affect users and add to unhealthy media psychology effects. [1] In response, researchers have started to focus their studies on these platforms' psychological effects, specifically the effects on younger users, looking into issues like social comparison and body image. [2]

History

Media psychology overlaps with various fields such as media studies, communication science, anthropology, education, and sociology. Research on media psychology has evolved, and most of the research that is considered 'media psychology' has come from other fields, both academic and applied.

1920s

In the 1920s, marketing, advertising, and public relations professionals began researching consumer behavior and motivation for commercial applications. The use of mass media during World War II created a surge of academic interest in mass media messaging, creating a new field, communication science (Lazarsfeld & Merton, 2000).

1950s

Media psychology gained prominence in the 1950s when television became popular in American households. Psychologists responded to widespread social concerns about the children and their television viewing. For example, researchers began to study the impact of television viewing on children's reading skills. Later, they began to study the impact of violent television viewing on children's behavior, for example, if they were likely to exhibit anti-social behavior or to copy the violent behaviors that they were seeing. These events led up to the creation of a new division of the American Psychological Association in 1987. Division 46, the Media Psychology Division (now the APA Society for Media Psychology and Technology), is one of the fastest growing in the American Psychological Association.

2000s

Today, media psychologists have expanded their focus to study newer technology and platforms like cellular phone technology, the internet, and social media. Platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat have become important areas of study as these apps have increased incidences of social comparison, body image concerns, and technology addiction. TikTok, particularly with its fast-paced content and short videos, has been associated with increased anxiety and depression rates among younger users. This increase is caused by the glamorization of influencers and excessive exposure to idealized lifestyles, creating unrealistic expectations for users and causing negative self-images. [2]

Theories

Media psychology's theories include the user's perception, cognition, and humanistic components in regards to their experience to their surroundings. Media psychologists also draw upon developmental and narrative psychologies and emerging findings from neuroscience. The theories and research in psychology are used as the backbone of media psychology and guide the discipline itself. Theories in psychology applied to media include multiple dimensions, i.e., text, pictures, symbols, video and sound. Sensory Psychology, semiotics and semantics for visual and language communication, social cognition and neuroscience are among the areas addressed in the study of this area of media psychology. A few of the theories employed in media psychology include:

Affective Disposition Theory

The concept of affective disposition theory is used to differentiate users' perspectives on different forms of media content and the differences within attentional focus. [3] The theory consists of four components that revolve around emotion: (1) media is based on an individual's emotions and opinions towards characters, (2) media content is driven from enjoyment and appreciation from individuals, (3) individuals form feelings about characters that are either positive or negative and (4) media relies on conflicts between characters and how individuals react to the conflict. [4]

Social Comparison Theory

Social comparison theory is a key media psychology theory that states that people determine their worth by comparing themselves to others. Social media apps like TikTok and Instagram add to this issue, as their platforms make it easy for users to constantly compare themselves to the fabricated lives of influencers seen online. Many individuals compare themselves upward, meaning they are comparing themselves to people they perceive as more attractive, successful, or accomplished compared to themselves. [5] Upward comparisons can cause people to feel dissatisfied with their lives, have lower self-esteem, and not live up to the unrealistic standards seen online and portrayed in society. [5]

The mental health implications of this behavior are particularly concerning. Adolescents and young adults, who often use social media with minimal restrictions or guidance, are especially vulnerable. Due to the pressure to mold to the idealized beauty and lifestyle standards of society, Instagram and TikTok are linked to increased feelings of anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. [1] These platforms could encourage social comparison, creating a cycle of negative self-perceptions.

This harmful cycle is escalated by the increased popularity of social media influencers, who share highly crafted videos that present their lives in unrealistic, fabricated ways. Young teen girls are vulnerable to this cycle as they try to meet these unrealistic lifestyle and beauty standards portrayed by influencers, which leads to continued social comparison and dissatisfaction with one's life, body, and achievements. [5] Social media and influencers heighten the adverse effects of the social comparison theory, which is concerning because influencers' opinions and content can shape how users view what is typical or expected of life in society.

Simulation Theory

Simulation theory argues that mental simulations do not fully exclude the external information that surrounds the user. Rather that the mediated stimuli are reshaped into imagery and memories of the user in order to run the simulation. It explains why the user is able to form these experiences without the use of technology, because it points to the relevance of construction and internal processing. [6]

Psychological Theory of Play

The psychological theory of play applies a more general framework to the concept of media entertainment. This idea potentially offers a more conceptual connection that points to presence. The activity of playing exhibits consistent results to the use of entertainment objects. This theory states that play is a type of action that is characterized by three major aspects: [7]

  1. It is intrinsically motivated and highly attractive.
  2. It implies a change in perceived reality, as players construct an additional reality while they are playing.
  3. It is frequently repeated.

The psychological theory of play is based upon the explanations given by eminent people such as Stephenson, Freud, Piaget, and Vygotsky. The theory is based on how an individual uses media for their satisfaction and how media changes within a person's life according to its contents. Play is used for pleasure and is self-contained. People are influenced by media both negatively and positively because we are able to relate to what we see within the environment. By looking more in-depth at the different forms of play, it becomes apparent that the early versions of make-believe play demonstrate the child's need for control and the desire to influence their current environment. The theory explains the allure play has to humans in its many forms. In video games, which replicate the feeling, players hold some aspect of responsibility in the actions that they take within the world of the game. This can allow players to feel successful and powerful. It replicates the feeling of self-efficiency and proficiency within the video game. The experience of defeat is also replicated. In addition to that, in the case of defeat, players are not able to blame their mistakes on anyone but themselves. These all explain some aspects of the pleasure that comes from play. [8]

Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

The earliest research done on the effects of media on mental health focuses on the effects of traditional platforms like the radio and television, ignoring the importance and impact newer apps like Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat have on mental health. While social media can be used as a space for creating connections and exploring creativity when used responsibly, it can be used excessively and unsafely, which can lead to psychological challenges. [2]

Social media platforms are created in addictive ways to keep users engaged. These platforms are tailored to users' preferences, so they continue to see the media they relate to, causing prolonged exposure and engagement. Features like ads, alerts, and personalized recommendations cause users to keep coming back to their favorite social media apps. [5] The addictive design of popular apps, especially the design of TikTok, is an essential factor as to why it contributes to worsening mental health. Many younger TikTok users state that when on the app, they usually lose track of time and spend more time than they anticipated watching videos, explaining they were so immersed in TikTok and could not put their phone down, even though they should. This addiction-driven model is problematic, as it can lead to issues with obsessive social media use despite knowing the effects it can have on relationships, mental health, and physical health. [5] As of 2022, 95% of teenagers have access to smartphones, 67% regularly use TikTok, and 60% on Instagram and Snapchat. An alarming 54% of teens report that giving up their favorite social media apps would be challenging because they have a significant hold on their daily lives. [5]

Social media apps strive to elicit an emotional response in users. Hence, they return, causing higher instances of media addiction, zoning out, fear of missing out, and anxiety or depression. [2] Social media use has also been linked to decreased, disrupted, and delayed sleep, which can worsen depression, memory loss, and poor academic performance. [9]

Teenagers often use social media late at night when they should be using that time for rest. Many users use TikTok during overnight overs, disrupting sleep. [10] Excessive screen use, especially in the hours before bed, can result in delayed sleep, a reduction in quality of sleep, and heightened risks of depression, suicidal thoughts, mood disturbances, attention problems, and physical issues like weight gain. [10]

Another adverse effect social media can have on mental health is internet addiction disorder (IAD), which is the compulsive and unhealthy use of the internet and social media that causes disruptions to daily life.

Media psychology and technology

Media psychology involves all the research and applications which deal with all forms of media technologies. The media psychology comprises the prevailing customary and mass media, including radio, television, newsprint, magazines, music, film, and video. [11] It comprises art with new emerging technologies and applications that include social media, mobile media, and interface design. media psychology enables us to create a better and new trajectory concerning how people think about, use, and design media technology in medial platforms. [12] It helps provide tools that aid in identifying how technology has facilitated human goals. It also analyzes how the media becomes inadequate and the inadvertent outcomes of performance shifts, which determine better or worse applications.

The media psychology leads to the shift of the general focus from the center of inquiry in the given media-centric to the basic human-centric, leading to the enhancement of communication in the whole sector of media psychology. [13] The use of marketing and public relations has made tremendous help in the whole media psychology analysis whereby customer research and media psychology have given different goals that do not go hand in hand with the other marketing and public relations sectors. [14] The use of technology has enabled the improvement of global connection, limiting traditional activities and advancing the media sector. The media advancement led to the more beneficial platform, which was possible to pass judgment, produce, and distribute analysis to the required platforms.

Major Contributors

Major contributors to media psychology include Marshall McLuhan, Dolf Zillmann, Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch, David Giles, and Bernard Luskin. Marshall McLuhan is a Canadian communication philosopher who was active from the 1930s to the 1970s in the realm of Media Analysis and Technology. He was appointed by the President of the University of Toronto in 1963 to create a new Centre for Culture and Technology to study the psychological and social consequences of technologies and media. McLuhan's famous statement pertaining to media psychology was, "The medium is the message". [15] McLuhan's famous statement was suggestive towards the notion that media is inherently dangerous. [15] McLuhan's theory on media called "technological determinism" would pave the way for other people to study media. [15]

Dolf Zillmann advanced the two-factor model of emotion. The two-factor of emotion proposed that emotion involves both psychological and cognitive components. [15] Zillmann advanced the theory of "Excitation transfer" by establishing the explanation for the effects of violent media. [15] Zillmann's theory proposed the notion that viewer's are physiologically aroused when they watch aggressive scenes. [15] After watching an aggressive scene, an individual will become aggressive due to the arousal from the scene.

In 1974 Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch used the uses and gratifications theory to explain media psychology. Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch discovered five components of the theory; (1) the media competes with sources of satisfaction, (2) goals of mass media can be discovered through data and research, (3) media lies within the audience, (4) an audience is conceived as active, and (5) judgment of mass media should not be expressed until the audience has time to process the media and its content on their own. [16] Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch found out that audience gratification from the media are rooted in three things, the content of the media, the exposure to it, and the social context that represents different media exposure. However, most of all it comes from the desire to kill time in a way that is worthwhile. They also discovered that different forms of media satisfy in different ways; it fulfills different needs. For example, certain forms of media are used as an escape, like movies at the cinema, but the news channel may be not. [16]

David Giles [17] has been publishing in the area of media psychology since 2000. He wrote a book about media psychology in 2003. [18] His book Media Psychology gives an overview of media psychology as a field, its subcategories, theories, and developmental issues within media psychology. Giles started his career as a music journalist, before attending the University of Manchester to study psychology. He then continued his studies at University of Bristol, where he obtained his PhD. Since then, Giles has published numerous books, chapters, articles, and delivered presentations on psychology and the media, with a focus on the influence of celebrities and media figures. He has also worked as a professor of psychology at many universities in England, including universities of Bolton, Sheffield Hallam, Coventry and Lancaster. Since 2009 Giles has been working in the position of reader at the University of Winchester. [19]

Bernard Luskin is a licensed psychotherapist, with degrees in business and a UCLA doctorate in education, psychology and technology. He is also the founder and CEO of Luskin International. Luskin has been the founding president and CEO of many colleges and universities, including: Orange Coast College, Jones International University, Touro University Worldwide, Moorpark College, and Oxnard College. [20] He has also had success as a writer, publishing titles such as Introduction to Economics: A Performance-Based Learning Guide in 1977 and Casting the Net over Global Learning: New Developments in Workforce and Online Psychologies in 2022.

See also

Related Research Articles

Uses and gratifications theory is a communication theory that describes the reasons and means by which people seek out media to meet specific needs. The theory postulates that media is a highly available product, that audiences are the consumers of the product, and that audiences choose media to satisfy given needs as well as social and psychological uses, such as knowledge, relaxation, social relationships, and diversion.

Mass communication is the process of imparting and exchanging information through mass media to large population segments. It utilizes various forms of media as technology has made the dissemination of information more efficient. Primary examples of platforms utilized and examined include journalism and advertising. Mass communication, unlike interpersonal communication and organizational communication, focuses on particular resources transmitting information to numerous receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the content and information that is being mass communicated persuades or affects the behavior, attitude, opinion, or emotion of people receiving the information.

In media studies, mass communication, media psychology, communication theory, and sociology, media influence and themedia effect are topics relating to mass media and media culture's effects on individuals' or audiences' thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. Through written, televised, or spoken channels, mass media reach large audiences. Mass media's role in shaping modern culture is a central issue for the study of culture.

Cyberpsychology is a scientific inter-disciplinary domain that focuses on the psychological phenomena which emerge as a result of the human interaction with digital technology, particularly the Internet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social media</span> Virtual online communities

Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the creation, sharing and aggregation of content amongst virtual communities and networks. Common features include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Influencer marketing</span> Type of social media marketing

Influencer marketing is a form of social media marketing involving endorsements and product placement from influencers, people and organizations who have a purported expert level of knowledge or social influence in their field. Influencers are someone with the power to affect the buying habits or quantifiable actions of others by uploading some form of original—often sponsored—content to social media platforms like Instagram, YouTube, Snapchat, TikTok or other online channels. Influencer marketing is when a brand enrolls influencers who have an established credibility and audience on social media platforms to discuss or mention the brand in a social media post. Influencer content may be framed as testimonial advertising, according to the Federal Trade Commission in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Instagram</span> Social media platform owned by Meta Platforms

Instagram is an American photo and video sharing social networking service owned by Meta Platforms. It allows users to upload media that can be edited with filters, be organized by hashtags, and be associated with a location via geographical tagging. Posts can be shared publicly or with preapproved followers. Users can browse other users' content by tags and locations, view trending content, like photos, and follow other users to add their content to a personal feed. A Meta-operated image-centric social media platform, it is available on iOS, Android, Windows 10, and the web. Users can take photos and edit them using built-in filters and other tools, then share them on other social media platforms like Facebook. It supports 32 languages including English, Hindi, Spanish, French, Korean, and Japanese.

Experts from many different fields have conducted research and held debates about how using social media affects mental health. Research suggests that mental health issues arising from social media use affect women more than men and vary according to the particular social media platform used, although it does affect every age and gender demographic in different ways. Psychological or behavioural dependence on social media platforms can result in significant negative functions in individuals' daily lives. Studies show there are several negative effects that social media can have on individuals' mental health and overall well-being. While researchers have attempted to examine why and how social media is problematic, they still struggle to develop evidence-based recommendations on how they would go about offering potential solutions to this issue. Because social media is constantly evolving, researchers also struggle with whether the disorder of problematic social media use would be considered a separate clinical entity or a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. These disorders can be diagnosed when an individual engages in online content/conversations rather than pursuing other interests.

Social media began in the form of generalized online communities. These online communities formed on websites like Geocities.com in 1994, Theglobe.com in 1995, and Tripod.com in 1995. Many of these early communities focused on social interaction by bringing people together through the use of chat rooms. The chat rooms encouraged users to share personal information, ideas, or even personal web pages. Later the social networking community Classmates took a different approach by simply having people link to each other by using their personal email addresses. By the late 1990s, social networking websites began to develop more advanced features to help users find and manage friends. These newer generation of social networking websites began to flourish with the emergence of SixDegrees.com in 1997, Makeoutclub in 2000, Hub Culture in 2002, and Friendster in 2002. However, the first profitable mass social networking website was the South Korean service, Cyworld. Cyworld initially launched as a blog-based website in 1999 and social networking features were added to the website in 2001. Other social networking websites emerged like Myspace in 2002, LinkedIn in 2003, and Bebo in 2005. In 2009, the social networking website Facebook became the largest social networking website in the world. Both Instagram and Kik were launched in October 2010. Active users of Facebook increased from just a million in 2004 to over 750 million by the year 2011. Making internet-based social networking both a cultural and financial phenomenon. In September of 2011, Snapchat was launched and has had over 300 million monthly subscribers as of 2023.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TikTok</span> Video-focused social media platform

TikTok, whose mainland Chinese and Hong Kong counterpart is Douyin, is a short-form video hosting service owned by Chinese internet company ByteDance. It hosts user-submitted videos, which can range in duration from three seconds to 60 minutes. It can be accessed with a smart phone app or the web.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digital media use and mental health</span>

The relationships between digital media use and mental health have been investigated by various researchers—predominantly psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and medical experts—especially since the mid-1990s, after the growth of the World Wide Web and rise of text messaging. A significant body of research has explored "overuse" phenomena, commonly known as "digital addictions", or "digital dependencies". These phenomena manifest differently in many societies and cultures. Some experts have investigated the benefits of moderate digital media use in various domains, including mental health, and treating mental health problems with novel technological solutions. Studies have also suggested that certain digital media use, such as online support communities, may offer mental health benefits, although the effects are quite complex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social media</span>

Social media became an important platform for interaction during the COVID-19 pandemic, coinciding with the onset of social distancing. According to a study conducted by Facebook's analytics department, messaging rates rose by over 50% during this period. Individuals confined to their homes utilized social media not only to maintain social connections but also as a source of entertainment to alleviate boredom. Concerns arose regarding the overreliance on social media for primary social interactions, particularly given the constraints imposed by the pandemic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Story (social media)</span> Function in social networking and instant messaging services

In social media, a story is a function in which the user tells a narrative or provides status messages and information in the form of short, time-limited clips in an automatically running sequence.

The creator economy or also known as creator marketing and influencer economy, is a software-driven economy that is built around creators who produce and distribute content, products, or services directly to their audience, leveraging social media platforms and AI tools. These creators - who may include social media influencers, YouTubers, bloggers, artists, podcasters, and even independent professionals - generate revenue from their creations through a variety of monetization strategies, including advertising, sponsorships, product sales, crowdfunding, and subscription-based services. According to Goldman Sachs Research, the ongoing growth of the creator economy will likely benefit companies that possess a combination of factors, including a large global user base, access to substantial capital, robust AI-powered recommendation engines, versatile monetization tools, comprehensive data analytics, and integrated e-commerce options. Examples of creator economy software platforms include YouTube, TikTok, WFCN, Instagram, Facebook, Twitch, Spotify, Substack, OnlyFans and Patreon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">YouTube Shorts</span> Sharing platform within YouTube since 2020-21

YouTube Shorts is the short-form section of the American online video-sharing platform YouTube. Shorts focuses on vertical videos that are less than 180 seconds of duration and various features for user interaction. As of May 2024, Shorts have collectively earned over 5 trillion views since the platform was made available to the general public on July 13, 2021, including views that pre-date the YouTube Shorts feature. Creators earn money based on the amount of views they receive, or through ad revenue. The increased popularity of YouTube Shorts has led to concerns about addiction for teenagers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BeReal</span> French social media app released in 2020

BeReal is a French social-networking app released in 2020, developed by Alexis Barreyat and Kévin Perreau. Its main feature is a daily notification that encourages users to share photos with friends of themselves and their day-to-day life given a randomly selected two-minute window every day. Critics noted its emphasis on authenticity, which some felt crossed the line into the mundane. The name "BeReal" is a pun. Its primary reference relates to its focus on users uploading unpolished photos, while also being a pun of the term B-reel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Filter (social media)</span> Effects used to alter the appearance of a digital image

Filters are digital image effects often used on social media. They initially simulated the effects of camera filters, and they have since developed with facial recognition technology and computer-generated augmented reality. Social media filters—especially beauty filters—are often used to alter the appearance of selfies taken on smartphones or other similar devices. While filters are commonly associated with beauty enhancement and feature alterations, there is a wide range of filters that have different functions. From adjusting photo tones to using face animations and interactive elements, users have access to a range of tools. These filters allow users to enhance photos and allow room for creative expression and fun interactions with digital content.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snapchat dysmorphia</span> Psychological phenomenon

Snapchat dysmorphia, also known as "selfie dysmorphia", is a trending phenomenon used to describe patients who seek out plastic surgery in order to replicate and appear like their filtered selfies or altered images of themselves. The increasing availability and variety of filters used on social media apps, such as Snapchat or Instagram, allow users to edit and apply filters to their photos in an instant – blemish the skin, narrow the nose, enlarge the eyes, and numerous other edits to one's facial features. These heavily edited images create unrealistic and unnatural expectations of one's appearance, showing users a "perfected" view of themselves. The disconnection between one's real-life appearance and the highly filtered versions of oneself manifest into body insecurity and dysmorphia. The distorted perception of oneself can potentially evolve into an obsessive preoccupation with perceived flaws in one's appearance, a mental disorder known as body dysmorphic disorder. BDD has been classified as part of the obsessive-compulsive spectrum and it is currently affecting one in 50 Americans.

The phrase "girl math" is an internet meme, used to describe rationalizations by young women to justify indulgent and potentially irresponsible spending habits. It originated from the social media platform TikTok, later transferring over to Instagram and X.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 Craine, Kelly (May 2, 2023). "Baylor Researchers Explore Effect of Instagram, TikTok on Psychological Well-Being". Baylor University.
  3. ↑ Arthur, Raney (2011). "The Role of Morality in Emotional Reactions to and Enjoyment of Media Entertainment". Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications. 23 (1). Hogrefe Publishing: 18–23. doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000027.
  4. ↑ "Affective Disposition Theories | Media Psychology Review". mprcenter.org. Retrieved 2015-12-09.
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  12. ↑ Ewoldsen, David R.; Rhodes, Nancy; Fazio, Russell H. (2015-07-03). "The MODE Model and Its Implications for Studying the Media". Media Psychology. 18 (3): 312–337. doi:10.1080/15213269.2014.937440. ISSN   1521-3269. S2CID   51779022.
  13. ↑ Rozendaal, Esther; Opree, Suzanna J.; Buijzen, Moniek (2016-01-02). "Development and Validation of a Survey Instrument to Measure Children's Advertising Literacy". Media Psychology. 19 (1): 72–100. doi:10.1080/15213269.2014.885843. hdl: 2066/156792 . ISSN   1521-3269. S2CID   145497559.
  14. ↑ Kühne, Rinaldo (2013-01-01). "Testing Measurement Invariance in Media Psychological Research". Journal of Media Psychology. 25 (4): 153–159. doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000096. ISSN   1864-1105.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Giles, David (2003). Media Psychology. Mahwah, N.J.: Routledge.
  16. 1 2 Katz, Elihu; Blumer, Jay; Gurevitch, Michael (1973). Uses and Gratifications Research. Vol. 37 (4th ed.). Public Opinion.
  17. ↑ "Dr David Giles". University of Winchester. Archived from the original on 2015-12-22.
  18. ↑ "Media Psychology: 1st Edition (e-Book)". Routledge. Retrieved 2020-01-28.
  19. ↑ "Dr David Giles". University of Winchester. Retrieved 2022-04-01.
  20. ↑ "Bernard J. Luskin, Ed.D., MFT". Psychology Today. Archived from the original on 8 Feb 2024. Retrieved 2022-04-01.
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