Humanistic psychology

Last updated

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that arose in the mid-20th century in answer to two theories: Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner's behaviorism. [1] Thus, Abraham Maslow established the need for a "third force" in psychology. [2] The school of thought of humanistic psychology gained traction due to Maslow in the 1950s.

Contents

Some elements of humanistic psychology are [1]

Humanistic psychology also acknowledges spiritual aspiration as an integral part of the psyche. It is linked to the emerging field of transpersonal psychology. [3] [4]

Primarily, humanistic therapy encourages a self-awareness and reflexivity that helps the client change their state of mind and behavior from one set of reactions to a healthier one with more productive and thoughtful actions. Essentially, this approach allows the merging of mindfulness and behavioral therapy, with positive social support.

In an article from the Association for Humanistic Psychology, the benefits of humanistic therapy are described as having a "crucial opportunity to lead our troubled culture back to its own healthy path. More than any other therapy, Humanistic-Existential therapy models democracy. It imposes ideologies of others upon the client less than other therapeutic practices. Freedom to choose is maximized. We validate our clients' human potential." [5]

In the 20th century, humanistic psychology was referred to as the "third force" in psychology, distinct from earlier, less humanistic approaches of psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

Its principal professional organizations in the US are the Association for Humanistic Psychology and the Society for Humanistic Psychology (Division 32 of the American Psychological Association). In Britain, there is the UK Association for Humanistic Psychology Practitioners.

Differences with psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism

Through disagreement with the predominant theories at the time, developed by Freud and Skinner, Maslow was able to formulate the main points of humanistic theory.

Maslow had the following criticisms of the two main theories at the time:

  1. Freud's theory was deterministic, meaning that it attributed the behavior of people to unconscious desires. [6]
  2. Freud and Skinner's theories focused on individuals with mental conflicts (pathological) rather than all individuals.
  3. The other two theories focused too much on the negative traits of human beings, rather than focusing on the positive power Maslow believed individuals to have.[ citation needed ]

As a result, when Maslow developed his theory, he decided to focus on the conscious (rather than the unconscious) and decided to develop a new theory to explain how all individuals could reach their highest potential.[ citation needed ]

Origins

One of humanistic psychology's early sources was the work of Carl Rogers, who was strongly influenced by Otto Rank, who broke with Freud in the mid-1920s. Rogers' focus was to ensure that the developmental processes led to healthier, if not more creative, personality functioning. The term 'actualizing tendency' was also coined by Rogers, and was a concept that eventually led Abraham Maslow to study self-actualization as one of the needs of humans. [7] [8] Rogers and Maslow introduced this positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis. [9] [10]

The other sources of inspiration include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology.

Conceptual origins

Carl Rogers (1902-1987), one of the founders of humanistic psychology. Carl Ransom Rogers.jpg
Carl Rogers (1902–1987), one of the founders of humanistic psychology.

Whilst origins of humanistic psychology date back to the early 1960s, the origins of humanism date back to the classical civilizations of China, Greece, and Rome, whose values were renewed in the European Renaissance. [11] The modern humanistic approach has its roots in phenomenological and existentialist thought [12] (see Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty and Sartre). Eastern philosophy and psychology also play a central role in humanistic psychology, as well as Judeo-Christian philosophies of personalism, as each shares similar concerns about the nature of human existence and consciousness. [4] For further information on influential figures in personalism, see: Emmanuel Mounier, Gabriel Marcel, Denis de Rougemont, Jacques Maritain, Martin Buber, Emmanuel Levinas, Max Scheler and Karol Wojtyla.

As behaviorism grew out of Ivan Pavlov's work with the conditioned reflex, and laid the foundations for academic psychology in the United States associated with the names of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner; Abraham Maslow gave behaviorism the name "the first force", a force which systematically excluded the subjective data of consciousness and much information bearing on the complexity of the human personality and its development. Behavioral theory continued to develop to both account for simple and complex human behavior through theorists such as Arthur Staats, [13] Steven Hayes, [14] and other post-Skinnerian researchers. Clinical behavioral analysis continues to be widely employed in anxiety disorder treatments, [15] mood disorders, and even personality disorders. [16]

The "second force" arose out of Freudian psychoanalysis, which were composed by psychologists like Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Melanie Klein, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Sigmund Freud himself. [17] Maslow then emphasized the necessity of a "third force" (even though he did not use the term), saying that "it is as if Freud supplied us the sick half of psychology and we must now fill it out with the healthy half", [18] as a critical review towards the cold and distant approach of the psychoanalysis and its deterministic way of viewing the human being.

In the late 1930s, psychologists, interested in the uniquely human issues, such as the self, self-actualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning—that is, a concrete understanding of human existence—included Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Clark Moustakas, who were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a psychology focused on these features of human capital demanded by post-industrial society.

The humanistic psychology perspective is summarized by five core principles or postulates of humanistic psychology first articulated in an article written by James Bugental in 1964 [19] and adapted by Tom Greening, [20] psychologist and long-time editor of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology . [21] The five basic principles of humanistic psychology are:

  1. Human beings, as human, supersede the sum of their parts. They cannot be reduced to components.
  2. Human beings have their existence in a uniquely human context, as well as in a cosmic ecology.
  3. Human beings are aware and are aware of being aware—i.e., they are conscious. Human consciousness always includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people.
  4. Human beings have the ability to make choices and therefore have responsibility.
  5. Human beings are intentional, aim at goals, are aware that they cause future events, and seek meaning, value, and creativity.

While humanistic psychology is a specific division within the American Psychological Association (Division 32), [22] humanistic psychology is not so much a discipline within psychology as a perspective on the human condition that informs psychological research and practice.

Practical origins

WWII created practical pressures on military psychologists, they had more patients to see and care for than time or resources permitted. The origins of group therapy are here. [23] Eric Berne's progression of books shows this transition out of what we might call pragmatic psychology of WWII into his later innovation, Transactional Analysis, [24] one of the most influential forms of humanistic Popular Psychology of the later 1960s-1970. Even though transactional analysis was considered a unique methodology, it was challenged after Berne's death.

Orientation to scientific research

Humanistic psychologists generally do not believe that we will understand human consciousness and behavior through mainstream scientific research. [25] The objection that humanistic psychologists have to traditional research methods is that they are derived from and suited for the physical sciences [26] and not especially appropriate to studying the complexities and nuances of human meaning-making. [27] [28] [29]

However, humanistic psychology has involved scientific research of human behavior since its inception. For example:

A human science view is not opposed to quantitative methods, but, following Edmund Husserl:

  1. favors letting the methods be derived from the subject matter and not uncritically adopting the methods of natural science, [36] and
  2. advocates for methodological pluralism. Consequently, much of the subject matter of psychology lends itself to qualitative approaches (e.g. the lived experience of grief), and quantitative methods are mainly appropriate when something can be counted without leveling the phenomena (e.g. the length of time spent crying).

Research has remained part of the humanistic psychology agenda, though with more of a holistic than reductionistic focus. Specific humanistic research methods evolved in the decades following the formation of the humanistic psychology movement. [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]

Development of the field

Saybrook Conference

In November 1964 key figures in the movement gathered at Old Saybrook (CT) for the first invitational conference on Humanistic psychology. [47] [48] [4] [49] The meeting was a co-operation between the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP), which sponsored the conference, the Hazen Foundation, which provided financing, and Wesleyan University, which hosted the meeting. In addition to the founding figures of Humanistic psychology; Abraham Maslow, Rollo May, James Bugental and Carl Rogers, the meeting attracted several academic profiles from the humanistic disciplines, including: Gordon Allport, George Kelly, Clark Moustakas, Gardner Murphy, Henry Murray, Robert W. White, Charlotte Bühler, Floyd Matson, Jacques Barzun, and René Dubos. [47] [4] Robert Knapp was chairman [4] and Henry Murray gave the keynote address. [49]

Among the intentions of the participants was to formulate a new vision for psychology that, in their view, took into consideration a more complete image of the person than the image presented by the current trends of Behaviorism and Freudian psychology. [47] According to Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening [4] the participants took issue with the positivistic trend in mainstream psychology at the time. The conference has been described as a historic event that was important for the academic status of Humanistic psychology [48] and its future aspirations. [49]

Major theorists

Several key theorists have been considered to have prepared the ground for humanistic psychology. These theorists include Otto Rank, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May. This section provides a short-handed summary of each individual's contributions for the theory. [6]

Abraham Maslow: In regards to humanistic theory, Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs. This is a pyramid which basically states that individuals first must have their physiological needs met, then safety, then love, then self-esteem and lastly self-actualization. People who have met their self-actualization needs are self-aware, caring, wise and their interests are problem centered. He theorized that self-actualizing people are continuously striving, thinking broadly and focusing on broader problems. He also believed however, that only 1% of people actually achieved self-actualization. [50]

Carl Rogers: Rogers built upon Maslow's theory and argued that the process of self-actualization is nurtured in a growth promoting climate. Two conditions are required in order for a climate to be a self-actualizing growth promoting climate: the individual must be able to be their genuine self, and as the individual expresses their true self, they must be accepted by others.

Counseling and therapy

Diagram illustrating the "hierarchy of needs" theory of Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Click to enlarge. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png
Diagram illustrating the "hierarchy of needs" theory of Abraham Maslow (1908–1970). Click to enlarge.

The aim of humanistic therapy is usually to help the client develop a stronger and healthier sense of self, also called self-actualization. [4] [51] Humanistic therapy attempts to teach clients that they have potential for self-fulfillment. This type of therapy is insight-based, meaning that the therapist attempts to provide the client with insights about their inner conflicts. [52]

Approaches

Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to counseling and therapy. Among the earliest approaches we find the developmental theory of Abraham Maslow, emphasizing a hierarchy of needs and motivations; the existential psychology of Rollo May acknowledging human choice and the tragic aspects of human existence; and the person-centered or client-centered therapy of Carl Rogers, which is centered on the client's capacity for self-direction and understanding of his or her own development. [51] Client-centered therapy is non-directive; the therapist listens to the client without judgement, allowing the client to come to insights by themselves. [52] The therapist should ensure that all of the client's feelings are being considered and that the therapist has a firm grasp on the concerns of the client while ensuring that there is an air of acceptance and warmth. [7] Client-centered therapist engages in active listening during therapy sessions. [52]

A therapist cannot be completely non-directive; however, a nonjudgmental, accepting environment that provides unconditional positive regard will encourage feelings of acceptance and value. [52]

Existential psychotherapies, an application of humanistic psychology, applies existential philosophy, which emphasizes the idea that humans have the freedom to make sense of their lives. They are free to define themselves and do whatever it is they want to do. This is a type of humanistic therapy that forces the client to explore the meaning of their life, as well as its purpose. There is a conflict between having freedoms and having limitations. Examples of limitations include genetics, culture, and many other factors. Existential therapy involves trying to resolve this conflict. [7]

Another approach to humanistic counseling and therapy is Gestalt therapy, which puts a focus on the here and now, especially as an opportunity to look past any preconceived notions and focus on how the present is affected by the past. Role playing also plays a large role in Gestalt therapy and allows for a true expression of feelings that may not have been shared in other circumstances. In Gestalt therapy, non-verbal cues are an important indicator of how the client may actually be feeling, despite the feelings expressed.

Also part of the range of humanistic psychotherapy are concepts from depth therapy, holistic health, encounter groups, sensitivity training, marital and family therapies, body work, the existential psychotherapy of Medard Boss, [4] and positive psychology. [53]

Empathy and self-help

Empathy is one of the most important features of humanistic therapy. This idea focuses on the therapist's ability to see the world through the eyes of the client. Without this, therapists can be forced to apply an external frame of reference where the therapist is no longer understanding the actions and thoughts of the client as the client would, but strictly as a therapist which defeats the purpose of humanistic therapy. Included in empathizing, unconditional positive regard is one of the key elements of humanistic psychology. Unconditional positive regard refers to the care that the therapist needs to have for the client. This ensures that the therapist does not become the authority figure in the relationship allowing for a more open flow of information as well as a kinder relationship between the two. A therapist practicing humanistic therapy needs to show a willingness to listen and ensure the comfort of the patient where genuine feelings may be shared but are not forced upon someone. [7] Marshall Rosenberg, one of Carl Rogers' students, emphasizes empathy in the relationship in his concept of Nonviolent Communication.

Self-help is also part of humanistic psychology: Sheila Ernst and Lucy Goodison have described using some of the main humanistic approaches in self-help groups. [54] Humanistic Psychology is applicable to self-help because it is oriented towards changing the way a person thinks. One can only improve once they decide to change their ways of thinking about themselves, once they decide to help themselves. Co-counselling, which is an approach based purely on self-help, is regarded as coming from humanistic psychology as well. [55] Humanistic theory has had a strong influence on other forms of popular therapy, including Harvey Jackins' Re-evaluation Counselling and the work of Carl Rogers, including his student Eugene Gendlin; (see Focusing) as well as on the development of the Humanistic Psychodrama by Hans-Werner Gessmann since the 80s. [56]

Ideal and real selves

The ideal self and real self involve understanding the issues that arise from having an idea of what you wish you were as a person, and having that not match with who you actually are as a person (incongruence). The ideal self is what a person believes should be done, as well as what their core values are. The real self is what is actually played out in life. Through humanistic therapy, an understanding of the present allows clients to add positive experiences to their real self-concept. The goal is to have the two concepts of self become congruent. Rogers believed that only when a therapist was able to be congruent, a real relationship occurs in therapy. It is much easier to trust someone who is willing to share feelings openly, even if it may not be what the client always wants; this allows the therapist to foster a strong relationship. [7]

Non-pathological

Humanistic psychology tends to look beyond the medical model of psychology in order to open up a non-pathologizing view of the person. [51] This usually implies that the therapist downplays the pathological aspects of a person's life in favour of the healthy aspects. Humanistic psychology tries to be a science of human experience, focusing on the actual lived experience of persons. [4] Therefore, a key ingredient is the actual meeting of therapist and client and the possibilities for dialogue to ensue between them. The role of the therapist is to create an environment where the client can freely express any thoughts or feelings; he does not suggest topics for conversation nor does he guide the conversation in any way. The therapist also does not analyze or interpret the client's behavior or any information the client shares. The role of the therapist is to provide empathy and to listen attentively to the client. [7]

Societal applications

Social change

While personal transformation may be the primary focus of most humanistic psychologists, many also investigate pressing social, cultural, and gender issues. [57] In an academic anthology from 2018, British psychologist Richard House and his co-editors wrote, "From its very outset, Humanistic Psychology has engaged fulsomely and fearlessly with the social, cultural and political, in a way that much of mainstream scientific, 'positivistic' psychology has sought to avoid". [58] Some of the earliest writers who were associated with and inspired by psychological humanism explored socio-political topics. [4] [58] For example:

Relevant work was not confined to these pioneer thinkers. In 1978, members of the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) embarked on a three-year effort to explore how the principles of humanistic psychology could be used to further the process of positive social and political change. [67] The effort included a "12-Hour Political Party", held in San Francisco in 1980, where nearly 1,400 attendees [68] discussed presentations by such non-traditional social thinkers as Ecotopia author Ernest Callenbach, Aquarian Conspiracy author Marilyn Ferguson, Person/Planet author Theodore Roszak, and New Age Politics author Mark Satin. [69] The emergent perspective was summarized in a manifesto by AHP President George Leonard. It proffered such ideas as moving to a slow-growth or no-growth economy, decentralizing and "deprofessionalizing" society, and teaching social and emotional competencies in order to provide a foundation for more humane public policies and a healthier culture. [70]

There have been many other attempts to articulate humanistic-psychology-oriented approaches to social change. For example, in 1979 psychologist Kenneth Lux and economist Mark A. Lutz called for a new economics based on humanistic psychology rather than utilitarianism. [71] [72] Also in 1979, California state legislator John Vasconcellos published a book calling for the integration of liberal politics and humanistic-psychological insight. [73] From 1979 to 1983 the New World Alliance, a U.S. political organization based in Washington, D.C., attempted to inject humanistic-psychology ideas into political thinking and processes; [74] sponsors of its newsletter included Vasconcellos and Carl Rogers. [75]

In 1989 Maureen O'Hara, who had worked with both Carl Rogers and Paulo Freire, pointed to a convergence between the two thinkers. According to O'Hara, both focus on developing critical consciousness of situations which oppress and dehumanize. [76] Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Institute of Noetic Sciences president Willis Harman argued that significant social change cannot occur without significant consciousness change. [77] In the 21st century, influenced by humanistic psychology, people such as Edmund Bourne, [78] Joanna Macy, [79] and Marshall Rosenberg [80] continued to apply psychological insights to social and political issues.

In addition to its uses in thinking about social change, humanistic psychology is considered to be the main theoretical and methodological source of humanistic social work. [81] [82]

Social work

After psychotherapy, social work is the most important beneficiary of the humanistic psychology's theory and methodology. [83] These theories have produced a deep reform of the modern social work practice and theory, [84] leading, among others, to the occurrence of a particular theory and methodology: Humanistic Social Work. Most values and principles of the humanistic social work practice, described by Malcolm Payne in his book Humanistic Social Work: Core Principles in Practice, directly originate from the humanistic psychological theory and humanistic psychotherapy practice, namely creativity in human life and practice, developing self and spirituality, developing security and resilience, accountability, flexibility and complexity in human life and practice. [81]

Furthermore, the representation and approach of the client (as human being) and social issue (as human issue) in social work is made from the humanistic psychology position. According to Petru Stefaroi, the way humanistic representation and approach of the client and their personality is realized is, in fact, the theoretical-axiological and methodological foundation of humanistic social work. [85]

In setting goals and the intervention activities, in order to solve social/human problems, there prevail critical terms and categories of the humanistic psychology and psychotherapy, such as: self-actualization, human potential, holistic approach, human being, free will, subjectivity, human experience, self-determination/development, spirituality, creativity, positive thinking, client-centered and context-centered approach/intervention, empathy, personal growth, empowerment. [86] Humanistic psychology has been utilised as a framework for theorizing the African philosophy of Ubuntu in social work practice. [87] In addition, humanistic social work calls for the pursuit of social justice, holistic service provision, technological innovation and stewardship, dialogue and cooperation as well as professional care and peer support during the COVID-19 pandemic. [88]

Creativity in corporations

Humanistic psychology's emphasis on creativity and wholeness created a foundation for new approaches towards human capital in the workplace stressing creativity and the relevance of emotional interactions. Previously the connotations of "creativity" were reserved for and primarily restricted to, working artists. In the 1980s, with increasing numbers of people working in the cognitive-cultural economy, creativity came to be seen as a useful commodity and competitive edge for international brands. This led to corporate creativity training in-service trainings for employees, led pre-eminently by Ned Herrmann at G.E. in the late 1970s.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carl Rogers</span> American psychologist (1902–1987)

Carl Ransom Rogers was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of humanistic psychology and was known especially for his person-centered psychotherapy. Rogers is widely considered one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1956.

Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome problems. Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual's well-being and mental health, to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships and social skills. Numerous types of psychotherapy have been designed either for individual adults, families, or children and adolescents. Certain types of psychotherapy are considered evidence-based for treating some diagnosed mental disorders; other types have been criticized as pseudoscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rollo May</span> American psychologist (1909–1994)

Rollo Reece May was an American existential psychologist and author of the influential book Love and Will (1969). He is often associated with humanistic psychology and existentialist philosophy, and alongside Viktor Frankl, was a major proponent of existential psychotherapy. The philosopher and theologian Paul Tillich was a close friend who had a significant influence on his work.

Gestalt therapy is a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes personal responsibility and focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment, the therapist–client relationship, the environmental and social contexts of a person's life, and the self-regulating adjustments people make as a result of their overall situation. It was developed by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman in the 1940s and 1950s, and was first described in the 1951 book Gestalt Therapy.

Clinical psychology is an integration of human science, behavioral science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment, clinical formulation, and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

Person-centered therapy (PCT), also known as person-centered psychotherapy, person-centered counseling, client-centered therapy and Rogerian psychotherapy, is a form of psychotherapy developed by psychologist Carl Rogers and colleagues beginning in the 1940s and extending into the 1980s. Person-centered therapy seeks to facilitate a client's actualizing tendency, "an inbuilt proclivity toward growth and fulfillment", via acceptance, therapist congruence (genuineness), and empathic understanding.

Unconditional positive regard, a concept initially developed by Stanley Standal in 1954, later expanded and popularized by the humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers in 1956, is the basic acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does, especially in the context of client-centred therapy. Rogers wrote:

For me it expresses the primary theme of my whole professional life, as that theme has been clarified through experience, interaction with others, and research. This theme has been utilized and found effective in many different areas until the broad label 'a person-centred approach' seems the most descriptive. The central hypothesis of this approach can be briefly stated. It is that the individual has within him or her self vast resources for self-understanding, for altering her or his self-concept, attitudes, and self-directed behaviour—and that these resources can be tapped if only a definable climate of facilitative psychological attitudes can be provided.

Existential therapy is a form of psychotherapy based on the model of human nature and experience developed by the existential tradition of European philosophy. It focuses on the psychological experience revolving around universal human truths of existence such as death, freedom, isolation and the search for the meaning of life. Existential therapists largely reject the medical model of mental illness that views mental health symptoms as the result of biological causes. Rather, symptoms such as anxiety, alienation and depression arise because of attempts to deny or avoid the givens of existence, often resulting in an existential crisis. For example, existential therapists highlight the fact that since we have the freedom to choose, there will always be uncertainty - and therefore, there will always be a level of existential anxiety present in our lives.

Self-actualization, in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, is the highest personal aspirational human need in the hierarchy. It represents where one's potential is fully realized after more basic needs, such as for the body and the ego, have been fulfilled. Long received in psychological teaching as the peak of human needs, Maslow later added the category self-transcendence.

John Rowan was an English author, counsellor, psychotherapist and clinical supervisor, known for being one of the pioneers of humanistic psychology and integrative psychotherapy. He worked in exploring transpersonal psychology, and wrote about the concept of subpersonality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">James Bugental</span> American psychologist (1915–2008)

James Frederick Thomas Bugental was one of the predominant theorists and advocates of the Existential-humanistic therapy movement. He was a therapist, teacher and writer for over 50 years. He received his Ph.D. from Ohio State University, was named a Fellow of the American Psychological Association in 1955, and was the first recipient of the APA's Division of Humanistic Psychology's Rollo May Award. He held leadership positions in a number of professional organizations, including president of the California State Psychological Association.

The therapeutic relationship refers to the relationship between a healthcare professional and a client or patient. It is the means by which a therapist and a client hope to engage with each other and effect beneficial change in the client.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of psychotherapy</span>

Although modern, scientific psychology is often dated from the 1879 opening of the first psychological clinic by Wilhelm Wundt, attempts to create methods for assessing and treating mental distress existed long before. The earliest recorded approaches were a combination of religious, magical and/or medical perspectives. Early examples of such psychological thinkers included Patañjali, Padmasambhava, Rhazes, Avicenna and Rumi.

Clark E. Moustakas was an American psychologist and one of the leading experts on humanistic and clinical psychology. He helped establish the Association for Humanistic Psychology and the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. He is the author of numerous books and articles on humanistic psychology, education and human science research. His most recent books: Phenomenological Research Methods; Heuristic Research; Existential Psychotherapy and the Interpretation of Dreams; Being-In, Being-For, Being-With; and Relationship Play Therapy are valuable additions to research and clinical literature. His focus at the Michigan School of Professional Psychology was the integration of philosophy, research and psychology in the education and training of humanistic clinical psychologists.

Common factors theory, a theory guiding some research in clinical psychology and counseling psychology, proposes that different approaches and evidence-based practices in psychotherapy and counseling share common factors that account for much of the effectiveness of a psychological treatment. This is in contrast to the view that the effectiveness of psychotherapy and counseling is best explained by specific or unique factors that are suited to treatment of particular problems.

Kirk J. Schneider is a psychologist and psychotherapist who has taken a leading role in the advancement of existential-humanistic therapy, and existential-integrative therapy. Schneider is also the current editor of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. His major books are Existential-Humanistic Therapy (2010), Existential-Integrative Therapy (2008), The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology (2001), The Psychology of Existence (1995), Rediscovery of Awe (2004), Awakening to Awe (2009), and "The Polarized Mind" (2013).

The Association for Humanistic Psychology is a professional organization in the field of humanistic psychology, founded in 1963. Among the founders of the organization is the late psychologist Rollo May.

Everett Leo Shostrom was an American psychotherapist. His approach to psychotherapy was eclectic, integrating a wide range of theory, practice, and research. He was perhaps most well known for his film Three Approaches to Psychotherapy and his famous book Man, the Manipulator. He also produced well known tests and inventories including the Personal Orientation Inventory, Personal Orientation Dimensions, the Pair Attraction Inventory, and the Caring Relationship Inventory.

Coaching psychology is a field of applied psychology that applies psychological theories and concepts to the practice of coaching. Its aim is to increase performance, self-actualization, achievement and well-being in individuals, teams and organisations by utilising evidence-based methods grounded in scientific research. Coaching psychology is influenced by theories in various psychological fields, such as humanistic psychology, positive psychology, learning theory and social psychology.

Natalie Rogers (1928–2015) was an early contributor to the field of humanistic psychology, person centered psychology, expressive arts therapy, and the founder of Person-Centered Expressive Arts. This combination of the arts with psychotherapy is sometimes referred to by Rogers as The Creative Connection. The daughter of Carl Rogers, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, she established her own center, the Person-Centered Expressive Therapy Institute. Her writings, teachings, and practice introduced many to the power of creative arts for healing both within and outside the therapeutic setting.

References

  1. 1 2 Benjafield, John G. (2010). A History of Psychology: Third Edition. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. pp. 357–362. ISBN   978-0-19-543021-9.
  2. ↑ Junge, Maxine Borowsky (2010). The Modern History of Art Therapy in the United States. Charles C. Thomas. ISBN   978-0-398-07941-3.
  3. ↑ Colman, Andrew M. (ed.). "humanistic psychology n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press, 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 25 May 2010. Archived 2020-01-22 at the Wayback Machine
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Aanstoos, C. Serlin, I., & Greening, T. (2000). "A History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association". In D. Dewsbury (Ed.), Unification through division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association, Vol. V. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  5. ↑ "Humanistic Therapy." CRC Health Group. Web. 29 Mar. 2015. http://www.crchealth.com/types-of-therapy/what-is-humanistic-therapy Archived 2019-06-02 at the Wayback Machine
  6. 1 2 Humanistic theory | Behavior | MCAT | Khan Academy, archived from the original on 2021-08-10, retrieved 2021-08-10
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kramer (2009). Introduction to Clinical Psychology 7th Ed. Pearson. ISBN   978-0-13-172967-4.
  8. ↑ Kramer, Geoffrey P.; Douglas A. Bernstein; Vicky Phares (2009). Introduction to Clinical Psychology (7 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 254.
  9. ↑ Schacter (10 December 2010). Psychology 2nd Ed . Worth Publishers. ISBN   978-1-4292-3719-2.
  10. ↑ Schacter, Daniel L.; Daniel T. Gilbert; Daniel M. Wegner (2011). Psychology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers. pp.  15. ISBN   9781429237192.
  11. ↑ Keith Tudor. Humanistic Psychology. In: Ian Parker (ed). (2015). Handbook of Critical Psychology. New York, Routledge
  12. ↑ "Humanistic Psychology, APA". Archived from the original on 2018-08-29. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
  13. ↑ Staats, Arthur W. (2012). The marvelous learning animal : what makes human nature unique. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. ISBN   978-1-61614-597-2. OCLC   764387223.
  14. ↑ Relational frame theory : a post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. Steven C. Hayes, Dermot Barnes-Holmes, Bryan Roche. New York. 2013. ISBN   978-1-4757-7521-1. OCLC   1135604455.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  15. ↑ Barlow, David (2021). Clinical handbook of psychological disorders : A step-by-step treatment manual. David H. Barlow (Sixth ed.). New York: The Guilford Press. OCLC   1256676578.
  16. ↑ Linehan, Marsha (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN   0-89862-183-6. OCLC   27854187.
  17. ↑ AHP History, About Humanistic Psychology Archived 2010-08-27 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ↑ MASLOW, Abraham (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being. p. 3.
  19. ↑ Bugental, J. (1964). "The Third Force in Psychology". Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 4(1), 19–26. doi : 10.1177/002216786400400102.
  20. ↑ Greening, T. (2006). "Five basic postulates of humanistic psychology". Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 46(3), 239–239. doi : 10.1177/002216780604600301.
  21. ↑ Journal of Humanistic Psychology Archived 2016-11-27 at the Wayback Machine .
  22. ↑ "Division 32". Archived from the original on 2019-08-15. Retrieved 2012-05-04.
  23. ↑ "Group therapy". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2020-04-18. Retrieved 2020-06-13.
  24. ↑ Cornell, William F. (2020-07-02). "Transactional Analysis and Psychoanalysis: Overcoming the Narcissism of Small Differences in the Shadow of Eric Berne". Transactional Analysis Journal. 50 (3): 164–178. doi:10.1080/03621537.2020.1771020. ISSN   0362-1537. S2CID   221060856.
  25. ↑ Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Psychology the Science of Behaviour. Canada: Pearson Canada Inc. pp.  22. ISBN   978-0-205-64524-4.
  26. ↑ Harman, W. W. (1965). The humanities in an age of science. In F. T. Severin (Ed.), Humanistic viewpoints in psychology: A book of readings (pp. 282-91). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. (Original work published 1962)
  27. ↑ Rogers, C. R. (1965). The place of the person in the new world of the behavioral sciences. In F. T. Severin (Ed.), Humanistic viewpoints in psychology: A book of readings (pp. 387-407). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  28. ↑ Welch, I. D., & Rodwick, J. R. (1978). Communicating the sciences: A humanistic viewpoint. In I. D. Welch, G. A. Tate, & F. Richards (Eds.), Humanistic psychology: A source book (pp. 335-42). Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.
  29. ↑ Polkinghorne, D. E. (1993). Research methodology in humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(2-3), 218-242.
  30. ↑ Maslow, A. H. (1967). A theory of metamotivation: The biological rooting of the value-life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 7(2), 93-127. doi:10.1177/002216786700700201
  31. ↑ Maslow, A. H. (1962). Notes on being-psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 2(2), 47-71. doi:10.1177/002216786200200205
  32. ↑ Maslow, A. H. (2000). Theory Z. In D. C. Stephens (Ed.), The Maslow business reader (pp. 277-80). New York, NY: Wiley.
  33. ↑ Jourard, S. M. (1963, December). Objectives outlined. Phoenix: Newsletter of the American Association for Humanistic Psychology, 1(1), 2.
  34. ↑ AAHP Newsletter; May 1966; 3(1) p. 2 [Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP)]
  35. ↑ Polkinghorne, D. (1980). What makes research humanistic? Newsletter of the American Psychological Association - Division 32. Fal-Win. pp. 4-8.
  36. ↑ Giorgi, Amedeo (2009). The descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: A modified Husserlian approach. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. ISBN   978-0-8207-0418-0
  37. ↑ Bugental, J. F. T. (1967). Research areas and methods. In J. F. T. Bugental (Ed.), Challenges of humanistic psychology (pp. 79-81). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  38. ↑ Polkinghorne, D. E. (1992). Research methodology in humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(2), 218-242. doi:10.1080/08873267.1992.9986792
  39. ↑ Sargent, S. S. (1967). Humanistic methodology in personality and social psychology. In J. F. T. Bugental (Ed.), Challenges of humanistic psychology (pp. 127-33). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  40. ↑ Krippner, S. (2001). Research methodology in humanistic psychology in the light of postmodernity. In K. Schneider, J. F. T. Bugental, & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology: Leading edges in theory, research, and practice (pp. 289-304). London: SAGE.
  41. ↑ Giorgi, A. (2005). The phenomenological movement and research in the human sciences. Nursing Science Quarterly, 18(1), 75-82. doi:10.1177/0894318404272112
  42. ↑ Taylor, E. (2009). The zen doctrine of “no-method”. The Humanistic Psychologist, 37(4), 295-306. doi:10.1080/08873260903113576
  43. ↑ Pfaffenberger, A. (2005). Optimal adult development: An inquiry into the dynamics of growth. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 45(3), 279. doi:10.1177/0022167804274359
  44. ↑ Franco, Z., Friedman, H., & Arons, M. (2008). Are qualitative methods always best for humanistic psychology research? A conversation on the epistemological divide between humanistic and positive psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(2), 159-203. doi:10.1080/08873260802111242
  45. ↑ Friedman, H. (2008). Humanistic and positive psychology: The methodological and epistemological divide. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(2), 113-126. doi:10.1080/08873260802111036
  46. ↑ Barrell, . J., Aanstoos, C., Rechards, . C., & Arons, M. (1987). Human science research methods. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 27(4), 424-457. doi:10.1177/0022167887274004
  47. 1 2 3 Ryback, D. A More Human Psychology at the Crossroads. American Psychologist, 1990, Vol. 45, No. 11, 1271–1272
  48. 1 2 Taylor, E. An Intellectual Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 39 No. 2, Spring 1999 7-25.
  49. 1 2 3 Elkins, D.N. A Humanistic Approach to Spiritually Oriented Psychotherapy, in L. Sperry and E. P. Shafranske, editors (2005) Spiritually Oriented Psychotherapy, American Psychological Association.
  50. ↑ Humanistic theory | Behavior | MCAT | Khan Academy, archived from the original on 2021-08-10, retrieved 2021-08-11
  51. 1 2 3 Clay, Rebecca A. (September 2002). "A renaissance for humanistic psychology. The field explores new niches while building on its past." American Psychological Association Monitor , 33 (8).
  52. 1 2 3 4 Myers, D. G. (2014). Psychology: Tenth edition in modules. New York, NY: Worth Publishers
  53. ↑ Duckworth, A. L., Steen, T. A., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1, 629-651.
  54. ↑ Ernst, Sheila & Goodison, Lucy (1981). In our own hands: A book of self help therapy. London: The Women's Press. ISBN   0-7043-3841-6
  55. ↑ John Rowan's Guide to Humanistic Psychology Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
  56. ↑ "Grundlage des HPD". Archived from the original on 2013-11-09. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
  57. ↑ Hoffman, Louis, et al. (2009). Existential psychology East-West. University of the Rockies Press. ISBN   978-0-8207-0418-0
  58. 1 2 House, Richard; Kalisch, David; Maidman, Jennifer, eds. (2018). Humanistic Psychology: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Routledge, p. 73 (introduction to Part II, "Socio-Political-Cultural Perspectives"). ISBN   978-1-138-69891-8.
  59. 1 2 Moss, Donald. "The Roots and Genealogy of Humanistic Psychology". In Schneider, Kirk J.; Pierson, J. Fraser; Bugental, James F. T., eds. (2015). The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Theory, Research, and Practice. Sage Publications, 2nd ed., pp. 9–14 ("The Twentieth Century" section). ISBN   978-1-4522-6774-6.
  60. ↑ Fromm, Erich (1994, orig. 1941). Escape from Freedom. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN   978-0-8050-3149-2.
  61. ↑ Laing, R. D. (1967). The Politics of Experience and The Bird of Paradise. Penguin. ISBN   978-0-14-002572-9.
  62. ↑ Engler, Barbara (2013). Personality Theories: An Introduction. Wadsworth Publishing / Cengage, 9th ed., p. 357. ISBN   978-1-285-08880-8.
  63. ↑ Avissar, Nissim (2016). Psychotherapy, Society, and Politics: From Theory to Practice. Palgrave Macmillan, p. 12. ISBN   978-1-137-57596-8.
  64. ↑ Kirschenbaum, Howard, and Henderson, Valerie Land. "A More Human World." In Kirschenbaum and Henderson, eds. (1989). The Carl Rogers Reader. Houghton Mifflin Company, pp. 433–435. ISBN   978-0-395-48357-2.
  65. ↑ Thorne, Brian, with Sanders, Pete (2012). Carl Rogers. SAGE Publications, 3rd ed., pp. 119–120. ISBN   978-1-4462-5223-9.
  66. ↑ Brothers, Barbara Jo, ed. (1991). Virginia Satir: Foundational Ideas. Routledge, pp. 139–140 ("Change in Individuals Related to World Peace" section). ISBN   978-1-56024-104-1.
  67. ↑ Ferguson, Marilyn (September 4, 1978). "AHP Goes Public, Launches Era of Social Involvement Archived 2017-11-21 at the Wayback Machine ". Brain/Mind Bulletin. Reprinted in AHP Newsletter, October 1978, pp. 9-11 (pdf pp. 6-8). Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  68. ↑ Drach, Jack (May 1980). "High Expectations, Mixed Results: A Critique of AHP's 12-Hour Political Party Archived 2019-10-29 at the Wayback Machine ". AHP Newsletter, p. 41. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  69. ↑ Unidentified author (May 1980). "Presenters Archived 2019-10-29 at the Wayback Machine ". AHP Newsletter, p. 4. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  70. ↑ Leonard, George (May 1980). "Sketch for a Humanistic Manifesto Archived 2019-10-29 at the Wayback Machine ". AHP Newskletter, pp. 5-7. Retrieved April 12, 2013
  71. ↑ Lutz, Mark; Lux, Kenneth (1979). The Challenge of Humanistic Economics. Introduction by Kenneth E. Boulding. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., p. ix. ISBN   978-0-8053-6642-6.
  72. ↑ George, David (Spring 1990). "Review Essay. Humanistic Economics: The New Challenge". Review of Social Economy, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 57–62. Discusses a revised version of The Challenge of Humanistic Economics.
  73. ↑ Vasconcellos, John (1979). A Liberating Vision: Politics for Growing Humans. Impact Publishers. ISBN   978-0-915166-17-6.
  74. ↑ Olson, Bob; Saunders, Marilyn (December 1980). "The New World Alliance: Toward a Transformational Politics Archived 2018-07-11 at the Wayback Machine ." AHP Newsletter, pp. 14–16. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
  75. ↑ Stein, Arthur (1985). Seeds of the Seventies: Values, Work, and Commitment in Post-Vietnam America. University Press of New England, p. 136. ISBN   978-0-87451-343-1.
  76. ↑ O'Hara, M. (1989). Person-centered approach as conscientização: The works of Carl Rogers and Paulo Freire. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 29(1), 11-35. doi : 10.1177/0022167889291002.
  77. ↑ Harman, Willis (1988). Global Mind Change: The New Age Revolution in the Way We Think. Warner Books edition. ISBN   978-0-446-39147-4. Substantially revised in 1998 as Global Mind Change: The Promise of the 21st Century. Introduction by Hazel Henderson. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. ISBN   978-1-57675-029-2.
  78. ↑ Bourne, Edmund J. (2008). Global Shift: How a New Worldview Is Transforming Humanity. New Harbinger Publications. ISBN   978-1-57224-597-6.
  79. ↑ Macy, Joanna; Johnstone, Chris (2012). Active Hope: How to Face the Mess We're In Without Going Crazy. New World Library. ISBN   978-1-57731-972-6.
  80. ↑ Rosenberg, Marshall B. (2005). The Heart of Social Change: How To Make a Difference in Your World. Puddle Dancer Press. ISBN   978-1-892005-10-6.
  81. 1 2 Payne, M. (2011). Humanistic Social Work: Core Principles in Practice. Chicago: Lyceum, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
  82. ↑ Stefaroi, P. (2012). Humanistic Paradigm of Social Work or Brief Introduction in Humanistic Social Work. Social Work Review, 1, pp. 161-174.
  83. ↑ Ellenhorn, R. (1988). Toward a Humanistic Social Work: Social Work for Conviviality, Humanity & Society , Vol. 12, Issue 2, p.166.
  84. ↑ Payne, M. (2005). Modern Social Work Theory (3rd ed.), Chicago: Lyceum Books.
  85. ↑ Stefaroi, P. (2009). Humanistic Perspective on Customer in Social Work, Social Work Review, 1-2, pp. 9-34.
  86. ↑ Humanistische Akademie. (1998). Humanistische Sozialarbeit, Berlin: Humanistische Akademie. Series: Humanismus aktuell, H. 3. Jg. 2.
  87. ↑ Chigangaidze, Robert K. (2021-04-03). "An exposition of humanistic- existential social work in light of ubuntu philosophy: Towards theorizing ubuntu in social work practice". Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought. 40 (2): 146–165. doi:10.1080/15426432.2020.1859431. ISSN   1542-6432. S2CID   234440837. Archived from the original on 2021-11-18. Retrieved 2021-08-22.
  88. ↑ Chigangaidze, Robert K (2021-04-22). "COVID-19 and the calls of humanistic social work: Exploring the developmental-clinical social work concerns of the pandemic". International Social Work. 64 (5): 663–675. doi: 10.1177/00208728211007911 . ISSN   0020-8728.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.