Cyberpsychology

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Cyberpsychology (also known as Internet psychology, web psychology, or digital psychology) is a scientific inter-disciplinary domain that focuses on the psychological phenomena which emerge as a result of the human interaction with digital technology, particularly the Internet. [1]

Contents

Overview

Cyberpsychology is a broadly used term for inter-disciplinary research that commonly describes how humans interact with others over technology, how human behavior and psychological states are affected by technology, and how technology can be optimally developed for human needs. [2] While not explicitly defined as cyberpsychology, previous research into the impacts of virtual reality on human behavior [3] has been identified by cyberpsychologists and leveraged to guide the parameters of research areas. The importance of cyberpsychology as an independent and defined field from existing studies has been proposed by researchers such as Bruno Emond and Robert L West, suggesting the field should include cognitive modeling. [4]

While cyberpsychology remains broad, recent research has commonly been emerging on social media's impact on personality disorders, computer addiction, video game addiction, and online anxiety. [5] The effects of virtual therapy have also been identified due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. [6] These research areas also include the positive impact on the human psychological state regarding interaction with social artificial intelligence. [7] Research areas also include the influence of cyberpsychology on other fields; in research by Scott M. Debb, cyberpsychology is discussed as having interdependency with the discipline of Cybersecurity, specifically regarding human subjects. [8]

Professional bodies

The British Psychological Society [9] has a dedicated Cyberpsychology Section [1] which was founded in 2018. Likewise the American Psychological Association has a dedicated division for Media Psychology & Technology. [10] First published in 2007, Masaryk University in the Czech Republic has published Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, an open access, web-based, peer-reviewed scholarly journal that focused on social science research about cyberspace. [11]

Social media and cyberpsychological behavior

Social media use is rapidly growing. What is its impact? That is what cyberpsychology seeks to find out. Growing Social Media Influence on Digital Marketing.jpg
Social media use is rapidly growing. What is its impact? That is what cyberpsychology seeks to find out.

It was around the turn of the millennium that the United States broke the 50 percent mark in Internet use, personal computer use, and cell phone use. [12] The relevance of human–computer interaction (HCI) research within the field of cyberpsychology may become more visible and necessary in understanding the current modern lifestyles of many people.

Facebook, the leading online social media platform globally, [13] affects users' psychological status in multiple ways. Facebook follows the one-to-many communication pattern, allowing users to share information about their lives, including social activities and photographs. [14] This feature was enhanced in 2012, when Facebook Messenger was implemented to allow users more one-on-one communication merging with the Facebook Chat feature. [15] Facebook users enjoy the sense of being connected. [16]

Comparison and low self-esteem

Social media can be deceptive when the user sees only the joyous or entertaining experiences in a friend's life and compares them to their own lesser experiences. [17] Underestimating peers negative experiences correlates with greater loneliness and lower overall life satisfaction. [18] Inviting constant comparisons inevitably lowers self-esteem and feelings of self-worth; hence, Facebook and other social media accounts appear to exploit a vulnerability in human nature. [19]

Depression

Decreased self-esteem can increase depression.[ citation needed ] Studies have shown that Facebook in particular can be a factor in depression, especially among teenage users. [20] A study concluded that frequent Facebook use invoked feelings of depression and inadequacy. Social psychologist Ethan Kross, the lead author of the study, stated that the research tracked (on a moment-to-moment basis throughout the day) how a person's mood fluctuated during time spent on Facebook and whether or not they modified their Facebook usage. [21] Results suggest that as participants spent more time on Facebook, their feelings of well-being decreased and feelings of depression increased. [22] Another study found that participants in the highest quartile for social media site visits per week were at an increased likelihood of experiencing depression. [23]

Social isolation and ostracism

Excessive social media usage increases feelings of social isolation, as virtual relationships replace authentic social interactions. [23] [24] Additionally, one study found that social rejection or ostracism in an immersive virtual environment has a negative impact on affect (emotion), in the same way, that ostracism negatively impacts emotions in real life contexts. [25]

The size of an individual's online social network is closely linked to brain structure associated with social cognition. [26] Because of the access people have had to internet technologies, some behaviors can be characterized as information foraging. Information foraging is the theory of how people navigate the web to satisfy an informational need. It essentially says that, when users have a certain information goal, they assess the information that they can extract from any candidate source of information relative to the cost involved in extracting that information and choose one or several candidate sources so that they maximize the ratio. [27] From a social standpoint, the internet is a breeding ground for creating a space for relationships, roles, and a new sense of self. [28]

Negative relationships

One survey found that a high level of Facebook usage is associated with adverse relationship outcomes (such as divorce and breaking up) and that these negative outcomes are mediated by conflict about high levels of Facebook use. [29] However, this was only true for those who are or have been, in relatively newer relationships of three years or less.

To cope with the uncertainty of a suspected romantic relationship, partner surveillance on Facebook is becoming more popular. [30] However, skepticism between couples may inevitably cause the end of a relationship.

These findings do not demonstrate causality: relationship maintenance behaviors, such as surveillance and monitoring, are indicators of current levels of trust within the relationship. [31] This suggests that certain behaviors on social media may be predicting negative outcomes, rather than causing them. When it comes to technology lot of people do not know when something has gone wrong until it goes wrong. [32] Further, Facebook can be a tool in strengthening and reaffirming a relationship, as it allows for positive expressions of trust, affection, and commitment. [31]

Fear of missing out (FOMO)

A byproduct of social media use can be the "fear of missing out", or FOMO. [33] This fear develops from a user's repetitive and obsessive status-checking of "friend" status updates and posts related to social events or celebrations resulting in a feeling of being "left out" if these events are not experienced. There is also the closely related fear of being missed (FOBM), or the fear of invisibility. [34] This fear involves an obsessive need to provide constant status updates on one's own personal, day-to-day life, movements, travel, events, etc. unable to "un-plug". Evidence suggests this type of anxiety is a mediating factor in increased social media use and decreased self-esteem. [35]

Sleep deprivation

Social media at use can lead to lower quality sleep. [36]

A study commissioned by Travelodge hotels [37] concluded that Britain has become a nation of 'Online-A-Holics'. On average, Britons spend 16 minutes in bed socially networking with pals each night – the peak chatting time being 9:45 pm. This time spent social networking may be affecting Britons' sleep quota as, on average, respondents reported they are getting just six hours and 21 minutes of sleep per night.[ clarification needed ] 65% of respondents stated the last thing they do before nodding off at night is check their mobile phone for text messages. On average, Britons will spend around nine minutes every night texting before falling asleep,[ clarification needed ] and four out of ten adults reported they have a regular text communication with friends in bed every night. [38]

Addictive behavior

Studies have shown a connection between online social media, such as Facebook use, to addictive behaviors, emotion regulation, impulse control, and substance abuse. [39] This may be because people are learning to access and process information more rapidly and to shift attention quickly from one task to the next. All this access and vast selection is causing some entertainment seekers to develop the constant need for instant gratification with a loss of patience. [40] [ better source needed ] Results from a survey of university undergraduates showed that almost 10% met criteria for what investigators describe as "disordered social networking use". [41] Respondents who met criteria for "Facebook addiction" also reported statistically significant symptoms similar to the symptoms of addiction, such as tolerance (increased Facebook use over time), withdrawal (irritability when unable to access Facebook), and cravings to access the site. "Our findings suggest that there may be shared mechanisms underlying both substance and behavioral addictions," Hormes added. [42]

The prevalence of internet addiction varies considerably between countries and is inversely related to the quality of life. [43] Many countries in Asia (particularly China, South Korea, and Japan) have raised public concern over the recent rise in internet addictions. [44]

Eating disorders

Some studies have found a correlation between social media use and disordered eating. [45] [46] [47]

In women college students, social media use predicts disordered-eating symptomatology and other related variables (such as the drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction). [47] For men, media use predicted endorsement of personal thinness and dieting. [47]

Social media and ADHD

An emerging body of research suggests that internet addiction and unhealthy social media activity may be more prevalent in ADHD individuals. [48] Male college students are more likely than women college students to be screened positively for adult ADHD; however, the overall association between Internet addiction and attention deficit is more significant in females. [49]

Clinical psychologist Michelle Frank stated, "The ADHD brain is already one that struggles with motivation, activation, organizing behaviors, managing time, and maintaining focus...Technology, left un-managed, makes these struggles considerably more difficult. The unique challenges that result are prime vulnerabilities to the common pitfalls of technology use." [48]

Although many factors contribute to ADHD (including genes, teratogens, parenting styles, etc.), a sedentary lifestyle centered on television, computer games, and mobile devices may increase the risk for ADHD.[ medical citation needed ] In the view of Dr. Robert Melillo, founder of the Brain Balance Program, "When kids play computer games, their minds are processing information in a much different way than kids who are, say, running around on a playground... Recent studies have shown that playing computer games only builds very short-term attention that needs to be rewarded frequently." [50] [ clarification needed ]

Short video platforms and mental illness

Several studies have suggested that young college-aged adults with mental disorders may experience negative outcomes as a result of using short video platforms such as TikTok. For example, one Chinese study found negative cognition tendencies that may result in negative emotions, based on a college sample. [51] Other researchers have also explored the manifestation of factitious disorder and dissociative identity disorder among recurrent users of social media platforms like TikTok. [52] [53]

Positive correlates of social media use

Several positive psychological outcomes are related to Facebook use. People can derive a sense of social connectedness and belongingness in the online environment. [16] [54] Importantly, this online social connectedness was associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety, and greater levels of subjective well-being.

Messaging can also be used to express trust, affection, and commitment, thus strengthening personal relationships. [31]

Social media and memes

Internet users sometimes relate to one another through seemingly ridiculous images and text: specifically, internet memes. Creating and using internet memes can help people to interact successfully with other people online and to build a shared experience. [55] [56] While internet memes can appear to be simple pop culture references, they can also allow a glimpse into the formation of culture and language. [55]

Psychotherapy in cyberspace

Psychotherapy in cyberspace is also known as cybertherapy or e-therapy. [57] [ page needed ] The first instance of this practice did not include interaction with a human, but rather a program called ELIZA, which was designed by Joseph Weizenbaum to answer questions and concerns with basic Rogerian responses. [58] ELIZA proved to be so convincing that many people either mistook the program for human, or became emotionally attached to it. [59]

In online counseling, a person e-mails or chats online with a therapist. There are also new applications of technology within psychology and healthcare which utilize augmented and virtual reality components—for example in pain management treatment, PTSD treatment, use of avatars in virtual environments, and self- and clinician-guided computerized cognitive behavior therapies. [60] The voluminous work of Azy Barak [61] (University of Haifa) and a growing number of researchers in the US and UK gives strong evidence to the efficacy (and sometimes superiority) of Internet-facilitated, computer-assisted treatments relative to 'traditional' in-office-only approaches. The UK's National Health Service now recognizes CCBT (computerized cognitive behavioral therapy) as the preferred method of treatment for mild-to-moderate presentations of anxiety and depression. [62] Applications in psychology and medicine also include such innovations as the "Virtual Patient" and other virtual/augmented reality programs which can provide trainees with simulated intake sessions while also providing a means for supplementing clinical supervision.

Many controversies related to e-therapy have arisen in the context of ethical guidelines and considerations. [63]

See also

Related Research Articles

An internet relationship is a relationship between people who have met online, and in many cases know each other only via the Internet. Online relationships are similar in many ways to pen pal relationships. This relationship can be romantic, platonic, or even based on business affairs. An internet relationship is generally sustained for a certain amount of time before being titled a relationship, just as in-person relationships. The major difference here is that an internet relationship is sustained via computer or online service, and the individuals in the relationship may or may not ever meet each other in person. Otherwise, the term is quite broad and can include relationships based upon text, video, audio, or even virtual character. This relationship can be between people in different regions, different countries, different sides of the world, or even people who reside in the same area but do not communicate in person.

Computer addiction is a form of behavioral addiction that can be described as the excessive or compulsive use of the computer, which persists despite serious negative consequences for personal, social, or occupational function. Another clear conceptualization is made by Block, who stated that "Conceptually, the diagnosis is a compulsive-impulsive spectrum disorder that involves online and/or offline computer usage and consists of at least three subtypes: excessive gaming, sexual preoccupations, and e-mail/text messaging". Computer addiction is not currently included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) as an official disorder. The concept of computer addiction is broadly divided into two types, namely offline computer addiction, and online computer addiction. Offline computer addiction is normally used when speaking about excessive gaming behavior, which can be practiced both offline and online. Online computer addiction, also known as Internet addiction, gets more attention in general from scientific research than offline computer addiction, mainly because most cases of computer addiction are related to the excessive use of the Internet.

The online disinhibition effect refers to the lack of restraint one feels when communicating online in comparison to communicating in-person. People tend to feel safer saying things online that they would not say in real life because they have the ability to remain completely anonymous and invisible when on particular websites, and as a result, free from potential consequences. Apart from anonymity, other factors such as asynchronous communication, empathy deficit, or individual personality and cultural factors also contribute to online disinhibition. The manifestations of such an effect could be in both positive and negative directions; thus, online disinhibition could be classified as either benign disinhibition or toxic disinhibition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet addiction disorder</span> Excessive internet usage that causes psychological disorders

Internet addiction "disorder" (IAD), also known as problematic internet use or pathological internet use, is a problematic compulsive use of the internet, particularly on social media, that impairs an individual's function over a prolonged period of time. Young people are at particular risk of developing internet addiction disorder, with case studies highlighting students whose academic performance declines as they spend more time online. Some experience health consequences from loss of sleep as they stay up to continue scrolling, chatting, and gaming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nomophobia</span> Fear or dislike of not having mobile phone

Nomophobia is a word for the fear of, or anxiety caused by, not having a working mobile phone. It has been considered a symptom or syndrome of problematic digital media use in mental health, the definitions of which are not standardized for technical and genetical reasons.

Various researchers have undertaken efforts to examine the psychological effects of Internet use. Some research employs studying brain functions in Internet users. Some studies assert that these changes are harmful, while others argue that asserted changes are beneficial.

Sara Beth (Greene) Kiesler is the Hillman Professor Emerita of Computer Science and Human Computer Interaction in the Human-Computer Interaction Institute at Carnegie Mellon University. She is also a program director in the Directorate for Social, Behavioral & Economic Sciences at the US National Science Foundation, where her responsibilities include programs on Secure and Trustworthy Cyberspace, The Future of Work at the Human-Technology Frontier, Smart and Connected Communities, and Securing American Infrastructure. She received an M.A. degree in psychology from Stanford in 1963, and a Ph.D., also in psychology, from Ohio State University in 1965.

Experts from many different fields have conducted research and held debates about how using social media affects mental health. Research suggests that mental health issues arising from social media use affect women more than men and vary according to the particular social media platform used, although it does affect every age and gender demographic in different ways. Psychological or behavioural dependence on social media platforms can result in significant negative functions in individuals' daily lives. Studies show there are several negative effects that social media can have on individuals' mental health and overall well-being. While researchers have attempted to examine why and how social media is problematic, they still struggle to develop evidence-based recommendations on how they would go about offering potential solutions to this issue. Because social media is constantly evolving, researchers also struggle with whether the disorder of problematic social media use would be considered a separate clinical entity or a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. These disorders can be diagnosed when an individual engages in online content/conversations rather than pursuing other interests.

Social media began in the form of generalized online communities. These online communities formed on websites like Geocities.com in 1994, Theglobe.com in 1995, and Tripod.com in 1995. Many of these early communities focused on social interaction by bringing people together through the use of chat rooms. The chat rooms encouraged users to share personal information, ideas, or even personal web pages. Later the social networking community Classmates took a different approach by simply having people link to each other by using their personal email addresses. By the late 1990s, social networking websites began to develop more advanced features to help users find and manage friends. These newer generation of social networking websites began to flourish with the emergence of SixDegrees.com in 1997, Makeoutclub in 2000, Hub Culture in 2002, and Friendster in 2002. However, the first profitable mass social networking website was the South Korean service, Cyworld. Cyworld initially launched as a blog-based website in 1999 and social networking features were added to the website in 2001. Other social networking websites emerged like Myspace in 2002, LinkedIn in 2003, and Bebo in 2005. In 2009, the social networking website Facebook became the largest social networking website in the world. Active users of Facebook increased from just a million in 2004 to over 750 million by the year 2011. Making internet-based social networking both a cultural and financial phenomenon.

Adam N. Joinson is a British author, academic and public speaker within the area of cyberpsychology. He is Professor of Information Systems at University of Bath, following posts at the University of West of England and the Open University. and has conducted ground breaking research into the psychology of Internet usage.

The Problem Video Game Playing Questionnaire is a scale measured by using a survey containing nine yes-or-no questions. It is designed to measure the disorder commonly referred to as video game addiction. The creators of the scale and accompanying survey are Dr. Ricardo Tejeiro-Salguero, a researcher at the University of Liverpool, and Dr. Rosa María Bersabé-Moran, a Psychology professor at the University of Málaga.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Problematic smartphone use</span> Psychological dependence on smartphones

Problematic smartphone use is psychological or behavioral dependence on cell phones. It is closely related to other forms of digital media overuse such as social media addiction or internet addiction disorder.

Mark D. Griffiths is an English chartered psychologist focusing in the field of behavioural addictions, namely gambling disorder, gaming addiction, Internet addiction, sex addiction, and work addiction. He is a Professor of Behavioural Addiction at Nottingham Trent University and director of the International Gaming Research Unit. He is the author of five books including Gambling Addiction and its Treatment Within the NHS, Gambling and Gaming Addictions in Adolescence, and Adolescent Gambling. He has also authored over 600 refereed papers, 140+ book chapters and more than 1,500 articles, and has won 15 awards for his research, including a Lifetime Achievement Award For Contributions to the Field of Youth Gambling in 2006 and International Excellence Award For Gambling Research in 2003 and a Lifetime Research Award For Gambling Research in 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phubbing</span> Snubbing a person for a mobile phone

Phubbing is the habit of snubbing a physically present person in favour of a mobile phone. In May 2012, as part of a linguistic experiment by Macquarie Dictionary, the advertising agency behind the campaign, McCann, had invited a number of lexicographers, authors, and poets to coin a neologism to describe the behaviour. The word "phubbing," a portmanteau of phone and snubbing, was first described by McCann Group Account Director Adrian Mills, who was working with David Astle. The term has appeared in media around the world and was popularized by the Stop Phubbing campaign created by McCann.

Virtual collective consciousness (VCC) is a term rebooted and promoted by two behavioral scientists, Yousri Marzouki and Olivier Oullier in their 2012 Huffington Post article titled: "Revolutionizing Revolutions: Virtual Collective Consciousness and the Arab Spring", after its first appearance in 1999-2000. VCC is now defined as an internal knowledge catalyzed by social media platforms and shared by a plurality of individuals driven by the spontaneity, the homogeneity, and the synchronicity of their online actions. VCC occurs when a large group of persons, brought together by a social media platform think and act with one mind and share collective emotions. Thus, they are able to coordinate their efforts efficiently, and could rapidly spread their word to a worldwide audience. When interviewed about the concept of VCC that appeared in the book - Hyperconnectivity and the Future of Internet Communication - he edited, Professor of Pervasive Computing, Adrian David Cheok mentioned the following: "The idea of a global (collective) virtual consciousness is a bottom-up process and a rather emergent property resulting from a momentum of complex interactions taking place in social networks. This kind of collective behaviour results from a collision between a physical world and a virtual world and can have a real impact in our life by driving collective action."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sean Young (psychologist)</span> Psychologist

Sean D. Young is an American social and behavioral psychologist. He is a medical school and Computer and Information Sciences professor with the University of California, Irvine (UCI). He serves as the executive director of the University of California, Institute for Prediction Technology (UCIPT) and the UCLA Center for Digital Behavior (CDB).

Online social support is an internet-based form of social support. The more people are engaging to express and discuss with other via online community, the more online community getting similar with the social community and have the similar relation between social support and subjective well-being. According to Robbins and Rosenfeld (2001), traditionally, listening support, confirmation, and appreciation are sources of subjective well-being. And Liu and Yu (2013) have stated validation, compliment, and encouragement are the most common types of support from the online community. Also, online friends can be an important source of social support.

The relationships between digital media use and mental health have been investigated by various researchers—predominantly psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and medical experts—especially since the mid-1990s, after the growth of the World Wide Web and rise of text messaging. A significant body of research has explored "overuse" phenomena, commonly known as "digital addictions", or "digital dependencies". These phenomena manifest differently in many societies and cultures. Some experts have investigated the benefits of moderate digital media use in various domains, including in mental health, and the treatment of mental health problems with novel technological solutions.

The advent of social networking services has led to many issues spanning from misinformation and disinformation to privacy concerns related to public and private personal data.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jessica Vitak</span> American information scientist

Jessica Vitak is an American information scientist who is an associate professor at the University of Maryland. She is faculty in the University of Maryland College of Information Studies (iSchool) and Communication Department. She serves as Director of the University of Maryland Human–Computer Interaction Lab (HCIL) and an Associate Member of the Social Data Science Center (SoDa).

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