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The national security of China is the coordination of a variety of organizations, including law enforcement, military, paramilitary, governmental, and intelligence agencies that aim to ensure China's national security. China considers three factors in its national security: national sovereignty, security, and development interests.
Chinese President Xi Jinping introduced the holistic security concept in 2014, which he defined as taking "the security of the people as compass, political security as its roots, economic security as its pillar, military security, cultural security, and cultural security as its protections, and that relies on the promotion of international security." [1] : 3 The holistic security concept also emphasizes the need for energy security. [2] : 77 Xi created China's National Security Commission (NSC), which focuses on holistic security and addresses both external and internal security matters. [3] : 180
With regard to Chinese abroad, China's 2015 National Security Law states that China will take necessary measures to protect the security and interests "of Chinese citizens, organizations, and bodies abroad." [1] : 179
At the 2022 meeting of Boao Forum for Asia, Xi proposed the Global Security Initiative. [1] : 158 It identifies six commitments: (1) common, comprehensive, cooperative, and sustainable security; (2) respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries; (3) abiding by the purpose and principles of the UN Charter; (4) taking the security concerns of all countries seriously; (5) peacefully resolving disputes between countries through dialogue; and (6) maintaining security in both traditional and non-traditional fields. [1] : 158 The principles outlined by the Global Security Initiative are long-standing elements of China's security policy. [1] : 158 As of 2023, articulations of the Global Security Initiative have primarily focused on broad principles and included little operational detail. [1] : 158
The armed forces of China are composed of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the People's Armed Police (PAP), the reserves, and the militia. [4] The PLA has four services: the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Rocket Force; the Rocket Force is responsible for land-based nuclear and conventional missiles. [5] The paramilitary PAP performs internal and - in wartime - rear-area security missions; it also controls the China Coast Guard. [6]
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Central Military Commission (CMC) is responsible for creating PLA policy. [7] The CMC is led by the Chairman, who serves as the commander-in-chief of the PLA. [7] The commission has two to three vice chairmen, each of whom is a general in the PLA ground forces, and seven other members representing other various branches of the PLA. [7] Operational control of the PLA is administered by the CCP Central Military Commission and the Ministry of National Defense. [8] The PLA headquarters are categorized into four departments: General Staff Department, General Political Department, General Logistics Department and General Armaments Department.[ citation needed ]
In 2005, China announced that it had downsized its military by 200,000 troops in order to optimize force structures and increase combat capabilities. [9] The number of active-duty soldiers decreased to 2.3 million from as high as 3.2 million in 1987. [10] The changes included eliminating layers in the command hierarchy, reducing non-combat units, such as schools and farms, and reprogramming officer duties. The ground forces were reduced in numbers, while the navy, air force, and rocket forces were strengthened. [11] Reservists number an estimated 500,000 to 600,000 and paramilitary forces in the PAP number an estimated 1.5 million. [12]
The Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China is differentiated from the Central Military Commission of the CCP. According to Article 93 of the state constitution, the CMC directs the armed forces of the country and is composed of a chairman, vice chairmen, and members whose terms run concurrently with the National People's Congress. The commission is responsible to the National People's Congress and its Standing Committee.
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In 2008, China sold US$645 million worth of arms and military equipment to a variety of nations. By 2018, China had increased its arms exports to $1.04 billion, making it the world's fifth-largest arms supplier behind the United States, Russia, Germany and France. [13] Its clients include Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Kuwait, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Yemen. China also provides military assistance to other countries, such as Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and Vanuatu. The China North Industries Group Corporation (CNGC, often called NORINCO), China's main defense manufacturer, has more than 100 joint ventures and more than 80 overseas offices and branches in 30 countries and regions involved in military and dual-use technology production and sales. China is also a major arms buyer, mainly purchasing naval and air force equipment from Russia. In 2004, China gave unprecedented access to senior foreign military officers at a military demonstration in Henan Province. Officers from 15 Asian nations and Russia were present. In 2005, China and Russia held joint eight-day "Peace Mission 2005" military maneuvers near Vladivostok, Shandong, and the surrounding waters; air, land, and amphibious exercises were held.
China is a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) along with Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, India, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan. The SCO was first called the Shanghai Five and was established in 1996 when the member nations signed agreements to strengthen mutual trust in military fields and border areas. The partnership was further strengthened in 1997 when the nations agreed to mutual reduction of military forces in border areas. After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the entry of US and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces into Central Asia, the SCO was formed and members began to hold joint counterterrorism military exercises. In 2004 the SCO initiated a regional antiterrorism structure to crack down on various transnational terrorist and criminal activities. China also has held joint naval and counterterrorism exercises with Pakistan. The naval exercise, which occurred in the East China Sea, was the first such drill with a foreign counterpart, as Chinese sources put it, "in a non-traditional security field". The anti-terrorism exercise, which was held in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, involved border guards from both sides.
In 2004 China deployed 95 riot police officers as part of a 125-member unit to Haiti for the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, a nation with which Beijing does not have diplomatic relations. As of that time, China had deployed 297 peacekeepers to five other nations, including East Timor, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Liberia, Afghanistan, and Kosovo. China has also sent peacekeeping observers to Ethiopia and Eritrea, various Middle Eastern countries, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, and Western Sahara. It is a formal participant in the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, the UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), the UN Mission in Sierra Leone, the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea, and the UN Mission in Liberia.
Although China claims that the share of defense spending as a percentage of the overall state budget has declined from 17.4 percent in 1979 to 9.5 percent in 1994 and 7.7 percent in 2004, the government has announced double-digit increases in military spending nearly every year for more than a decade.[ when? ] The defense budget for 2006 is expected to reach US$35.1 billion, the largest increase in four years and 16 percent higher than 2005 (estimated at US$29.5 billion). The report submitted in March 2006 at the Fourth Session of the 10th National People's Congress (NPC) contained a request for a budget increase to strengthen China's defensive capability and ability to respond to emergencies and to raise officer and enlisted pay levels. The NPC stated that China's military spending is still low compared to the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Japan. However, the actual defense budget is likely to be higher than expected because of the inclusion of defense-related items in non-defense budgets.[ citation needed ]
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The ground forces are organized into seven military regions (headquartered in Shenyang in the northeast, Beijing in the north, Lanzhou in the west, Chengdu in the southwest, Guangzhou in the south, Jinan in central China, and Nanjing in the east), 28 provincial military districts, four centrally controlled garrison commands (coinciding with the centrally administered municipalities of Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and 21 integrated group armies. The group armies have between 30,000 and 65,000 troops, typically comprising two to three infantry divisions, one armored division or brigade, one artillery division or brigade, and one joint surface-to-air missile or anti-aircraft artillery brigade or simply an antiaircraft artillery brigade.
The navy is organized into North Sea (headquartered at Qingdao, Shandong Province), East Sea (headquartered at Ningbo, Zhejiang Province) and South Sea (headquartered at Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province) fleets. Each fleet has destroyer, submarine, coastal patrol flotillas and naval air stations. There are numerous major naval bases: the North Sea Fleet has seven, the East Sea Fleet eight, and the South Sea Fleet sixteen.
The air force has 5 air corps and 32 air divisions. The major air force headquarters coincide with the seven military regions. The air force has more than 140 air bases and airfields, including ready access to China's major regional and international airports.
The strategic missile forces, or Second Artillery Corps, are organized into seven missile divisions based in the military regions, with the central headquarters at Qinghe, north of Beijing. There also are training and testing bases. The six operational bases have 21 launch brigades as of 2005.
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The major ground forces equipment includes an estimated 7,000 main battle tanks, 1,200 light tanks, 5,000 armored personnel carriers, 14,000 pieces of towed artillery, 1,700 pieces of self-propelled artillery, 2,400 multiple rocket launchers, 7,700 air defense guns, 6,500 anti-tank guided weapons, and unspecified numbers of mortars, surface-to-surface and surface-to-air missiles, recoilless rifles, rocket launchers, and anti-tank guns. The ground forces also have an estimated 321 helicopters and an unspecified number of unmanned air vehicles and surveillance aircraft.
Among the navy's principal combatant ships are 68 submarines (many of which are slated for decommissioning in the mid-2000s). One is a Xia class submarine-launched ballistic missile (SSBN) force strategic-capability submarine. There are plans for more advanced SSBNs by the end of the decade. The navy also has an estimated 21 destroyers and 42 frigates, as well as 368 fast-attack craft, 39 mine warfare ships, 10 hovercraft, 6 troop transports, 19 landing-ship/tank ships, 37 medium landing ships, 45 utility landing craft, 10 air-cushioned landing craft, 163 support and miscellaneous craft, 8 submarine support ships, 4 salvage and repair ships, 29 supply ships, 1 multirole aviation ship, and about 700 land-based combat aircraft and 45 armed helicopters. China also has plans to launch a 40,000-ton aircraft carrier by 2010.
The air force has some 1,900 combat aircraft, including armed helicopters. The inventory includes 180 bombers, more than 950 fighters and 838 ground attack fighters, an estimated 290 reconnaissance/electronic intelligence aircraft, an estimated 513 transports, an estimated 170 helicopters, some 200 training aircraft, and an unmanned aerial vehicle. Weapons include air-to-air missiles and ground-based air defense artillery using surface-to-air missiles and antiaircraft artillery.
The strategic missile forces have in their inventory 20 or more intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), between 130 and 150 intermediate-range ballistic missiles, one Xia class submarine carrying 12 submarine-launched ballistic missiles, and about 335 or more short-range ballistic missiles.
The principal paramilitary organization of China is the PAP. There are militia forces of indeterminate strength under the control of the CCP. Once a critical part of Mao Zedong's "people's war" strategy, militia units are no longer an essential part of China's military and have mostly disbanded.[ citation needed ]
China's internal security apparatus is made up of the Ministry of State Security (MSS) and the Ministry of Public Security (MPS), the PAP, the PLA, and the state judicial, procuratorial, and penal systems. The Ministry of Public Security oversees all domestic police activity in China, including the PAP. The ministry is responsible for police operations and prisons and has dedicated departments for internal political, economic, and communications security. Its lowest organizational units are public security stations, which maintain close day-to-day contact with the public. The PAP, which sustains an estimated total strength of 1.5 million personnel, is organized into 45 divisions: internal security police, border defense personnel, guards for government buildings and embassies, and police communications specialists.
The Ministry of State Security was established in 1983 to ensure "the security of the state through effective measures against enemy agents, spies, and counterrevolutionary activities designed to sabotage or overthrow China's socialist system." The ministry is guided by a series of laws enacted in 1993, 1994, and 1997 that replaced the "counter-revolutionary” crime statutes. The ministry's operations include intelligence collection, both domestic and foreign.
China has developed an efficient, well-funded internal security apparatus which is tasked with stability maintenance, or "weiwen". [14] According to a study conducted by Tsinghua University, based on published police budgets, $77 billion, (514 billion yuan) was appropriated for internal security in 2009, a budget item which is rapidly increasing. [15]
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Muslim separatists in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region present China with its most significant terrorist threat, which emerged in the late 1980s. In 2003, Beijing published "East Turkistan Terrorist List", which labeled organizations such as the World Youth Uyghur Congress and the East Turkestan Information Center as terrorist entities. These groups openly advocate for the independence and formation of East Turkestan. Although they have not been publicly linked to violent activity, the separatists have engaged in violence, bomb attacks, assassinations, and street fighting,[ citation needed ] which Beijing responded to with police and military action.
During the summer of 2004, elite troops from China and Pakistan held joint anti-terrorism exercises in Xinjiang that were aimed at the East Turkistan Islamic Movement, an organization listed as terrorist by China, the US, and the UN. This and other Uyghur separatist groups were trained in Afghanistan to fight with the Taliban and al Qaeda. The East Turkistan Islamic Movement was established in 1990 and has links to the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, which operates throughout Central Asia. Premier Wen Jiabao joined leaders of other Asian and European nations in Hanoi for the October 2004 Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM), where the delegates reaffirmed their call for a War on Terrorism led by the UN.
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is considered a part of China, so it has a responsibility to protect national security of China. In Hong Kong, national security law (to fulfill Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23) has not been passed yet. It was attempted in 2003 but withdrawn due to mass demonstrations. Since the major social movements in 2014 and 2019–20, the Central Government of China has had concerns about national security, and has highlighted foreign forces interfering in domestic affairs. The Chinese Government has pressured Hong Kong to enact national security laws many times. Since some Hong Kong legislators refuse to pass any bills related to China, it is unlikely that a national security law will be passed in the foreseeable future. To block the national security loophole in Hong Kong, in 2020, China's National People's Congress passed a National Security Law for Hong Kong which bypasses Hong Kong's local legislation. [16]
The Macau Special Administrative Region is considered a part of China, so it has the responsibility to protect the national security of China. A Macau national security law was passed in 2009.[ citation needed ]
The Korean People's Army encompasses the combined military forces of North Korea and the armed wing of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK). The KPA consists of five branches: the Ground Force, the Naval Force, the Air Force, Strategic Force, and the Special Operation Force. It is commanded by the WPK Central Military Commission, which is chaired by the WPK general secretary, and the president of the State Affairs; both posts are currently headed by Kim Jong Un.
The People's Liberation Army Navy, also known as the People's Navy, PLA Navy or simply Chinese Navy, is the naval warfare branch of the People's Liberation Army, the military of the People's Republic of China. As of 2024, it is the second-largest navy in the world in terms of total displacement, and the largest navy per number of ships in active service.
The Republic of China Armed Forces are the armed forces of the Republic of China (ROC) that once ruled Mainland China and now currently restricted to its territorial jurisdictions of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu Islands. They consist of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Military Police Force. The military is under the civilian control of the Ministry of National Defense, a cabinet-level agency overseen by the Legislative Yuan.
The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consist of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. All six armed services are among the eight uniformed services of the United States.
The Dongfeng series, typically abbreviated as "DF missiles", are a family of short, medium, intermediate-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles operated by the Chinese People's Liberation Army Rocket Force.
The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the armed wing of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the military of the People's Republic of China. The PLA consists of four services — Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, and Rocket Force — and four arms — Aerospace Force, Cyberspace Force, Information Support Force, and Joint Logistics Support Force. It is led by the Central Military Commission (CMC) with its chairman as commander-in-chief.
The People's Armed Police Force is a Chinese paramilitary organization primarily responsible for internal security, riot control, counter-terrorism, disaster response, law enforcement and maritime rights protection as well as providing support to the People's Liberation Army (PLA) during wartime.
Law enforcement in China consists of an extensive public security system and a variety of enforcement procedures used to maintain order in the country. Along with the courts and procuratorates, the country's judicial and public security agencies include the Ministry of Public Security (MPS) and the Ministry of State Security (MSS), with their descending hierarchy of departments, bureaus, subbureaus, and stations.
The People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), or the PLA Army, is the land-based service branch of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), and also its largest and oldest branch. The PLAGF can trace its lineage from 1927 as the Chinese Red Army; however, it was not officially established until 1948.
The People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison is a garrison of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), responsible for defence duties in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) since the handover of Hong Kong in 1997.
The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, abbreviated JMSDF, also simply known as the Japanese Navy, is the maritime warfare branch of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, tasked with the naval defense of Japan. The JMSDF was formed following the dissolution of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) after World War II. The JMSDF has a fleet of 154 ships, 346 aircraft and 50,800 personnel.
The Japan Self-Defense Forces, also known as the Japanese Armed Forces, are the unified military forces of Japan. Established in 1954, the JSDF comprises the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. They are controlled by the Ministry of Defense with the Prime Minister as commander-in-chief.
The People's Liberation Army Rocket Force, formerly the Second Artillery Corps, is the strategic and tactical missile force of the People's Republic of China. The PLARF is the 4th branch of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and controls China's arsenal of land-based ballistic, hypersonic, cruise missiles—both nuclear and conventional. The armed service branch was established on 1 July 1966 and made its first public appearance on 1 October 1984. The headquarters for operations is located at Qinghe, Beijing. The PLARF is under the direct command of the Chinese Communist Party's Central Military Commission (CMC).
A theater command (中国人民解放军战区) is a joint military command of the Central Military Commission that is composed of units from the service branches of the People's Liberation Army in its area of responsibility, and conducts broad and continuing missions. There are 5 theater commands: Eastern, Southern, Western, Northern, and Central theater commands, organized by a geographical basis. They are responsible for developing strategy, plans, tactics, and policy specific to their assigned area of responsibility. They are intended to take operational control of the multi-service units under their jurisdiction, while the branches retain administrative and "constructive" control.
Type 07 is a group of military uniforms used by all branches of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the paramilitary Chinese People's Armed Police Force. Introduced in 2007, the Type 07 uniforms replaced the Type 87 service uniforms used by regular units and the Type 97 Service Dress uniforms of the People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison and the People's Liberation Army Macau Garrison. The Type 07 uniforms were first seen in late June 2007 during a celebration ceremony for the 10th anniversary of the Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong.
The military modernization program of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) which began in the late 1970s had three major focuses. First, under the political leadership of 3rd paramount leader Deng Xiaoping, the military became disengaged from civilian politics and, for the most part, resumed the political quiescence that characterized its pre-Cultural Revolution role. Deng reestablished civilian control over the military by appointing his supporters to key military leadership positions, by reducing the scope of the PLA's domestic non-military role, and by revitalizing the party political structure and ideological control system within the PLA.
The CJ-10 is a second-generation Chinese land-attack cruise missile. It is derived from the Kh-55 missile. It is reportedly manufactured by the China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation Third Academy and the China Haiying Electro-Mechanical Technology Academy.
The 70th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China was observed with a series of ceremonial events including a grand military parade as its spotlight to celebrate National Day of the People's Republic of China that took place on 1 October 2019 in Beijing. It was the largest military parade and mass pageant in Chinese history.
The 50th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China took place on 1 October 1999. A military parade was held in Tiananmen Square in Beijing and various celebrations were conducted all over the country. China's paramount leader Jiang Zemin inspected the troops along Chang'an Avenue in Beijing. This parade was immediately followed by a civilian parade.
The 35th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China took place on 1 October 1984. A military parade was held in Tiananmen Square in Beijing and various celebrations were conducted all over the country. China's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping inspected the troops along Chang'an Avenue in Beijing. This parade was immediately followed by a civilian parade.
According to statistics, this year's budget for internal security has reached 514 billion yuan. The "Law Enforcement Situation in the 2009 Budget and This Year's Draft Budget Report" show that public safety expenditures increased by 16% last year and will be augmented by a further 8.9% this year.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Country Studies. Federal Research Division.
