Political offences in China

Last updated

During the Maoist era, particularly during the Anti-Rightist Movement and the Cultural Revolution, the judicial system of China was often used for political persecution of rivals, and penalties such as jail terms or capital punishment were largely imposed on the authority's political enemies, or anyone who attempted to challenge it. During those times, vague accusations such as "counter-revolutionary" (Chinese :反革命), capitalist roader (走资本主义路线), "running dog of the imperialist " (帝国主义走狗) could have had the accused imprisoned, or shot by firing squad. These labels fell out of use following the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976.

Contents

In more recent times, accusations such as “illegal possession of state secret” (非法持有国家机密) and “inciting subversion of state power” (煽动颠覆国家政权) carry long jail terms. The vague charge of “picking quarrels and provoking trouble” has also been frequently used to detain human rights activists.

Former (1949-1990)

Rightist

"Rightists" officially referred to those intellectuals who appeared to favour capitalism and against collectivization during the Anti-Rightist Movement. It was estimated that 550,000 Chinese were prosecuted as a result.

Counter-revolution

The crime of counter-revolution (Chinese :反革命) was established in February 1951, involving accusations such as the following:

The term was used during the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries to target former Kuomintang elements and other opposition against the PRC government.

According to Article 28 of the Chinese constitution. The state maintains public order and suppresses treasonable and other counter-revolutionary activities; it penalizes actions that endanger public security and disrupt the socialist economy and other criminal activities, and punishes and reforms criminals. [1]

The charge was used to label Lin Biao after his death in 1971 from a plane crash. He was alleged to have been planning a coup against Mao Zedong, and Mao's wife Jiang Qing used the opportunity to launch the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign against her political rivals. Subsequently, the charge was used against Jiang Qing herself following the death of Mao in 1976.

In 1997, this law was replaced by a new law: Inciting subversion of the government. In 2008 the law received media attention when Professor Yang Siquan (杨师群) of East China University of Political Science and Law was reported to police by his students for alleged counter-revolutionary activities. [2]

Accused

  • He Long, at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution in 1966. He Long died in confinement in 1969, and was rehabilitated in 1974.
  • Jiang Qing and the Gang of Four, at the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1980. Jiang received life imprisonment, and committed suicide in 1991 while in prison. Charges against Jiang and the Gang of Four still remain.
  • Kang Sheng, who died in 1975, was posthumously accused of the crime in 1980 and had his party membership stripped.
  • Lin Biao, during the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign in 1973, and onwards. Lin Biao and his family died in 1971 died in a plane crash when trying to fly out of China. Charges against him still remain.
  • Lin Zhao, during the Hundred Flowers Movement in 1960. She was executed in prison in 1968.
  • Liu Shaoqi, during the Cultural Revolution in 1967. He died in 1969 as a result of torture and medical neglect, and was rehabilitated in 1980.
  • Peng Dehuai, during the Cultural Revolution in 1966. He died in 1974, and was rehabilitated in 1978.
  • Harry Wu, during the Hundred Flowers Campaign in 1956.
  • Zhang Zhixin, during the Cultural Revolution in 1969. She was executed in prison in 1975, and was rehabilitated in 1979.

Capitalist roader

Capitalist roaders as described to be representatives of the capitalist class within the Chinese Communist Party, as well as those who attempt to restore capitalism. Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping were the two most famous "Capitalist roaders" during the Cultural Revolution. After the Cultural Revolution, Deng's policies led to economic reform in China, and a resurgence of capitalism.

Collusion with foreigners

During the Cultural Revolution, victims who were being accused of collusion with foreigners (里通外国) would often face long jail term, or death penalty.

Anti-party and anti-socialism

The charge of anti-party and anti-socialism (反党反社会主义) could result in death penalty. The term received media attention in 2010, when Xia Yeliang, a professor of Peking University, was accused of this offence by his students after referring to Taiwan as a country. [3]

Reactionaries

The accusation of reactionaries (反动份子) often resulted in long jail term and/or death penalty. This accusation was discontinued following the end of the Maoist era.

Class enemy

The accusation of class enemy (阶级敌人) often resulted in long jail term and/or capital punishment. With the demise of Maoism in China after the rise of Deng Xiaoping, the use of the term "Class enemy" is now extraordinarily rare in China.

Current

Inciting subversion of the state

Inciting subversion of the state (Chinese :煽动颠覆国家政权罪) was announced in a 1997 amendment of the Criminal Code of the People's Republic of China. According to Article 105, Paragraph 2,

"Anyone who uses rumor, slander or other means to encourage subversion of the political power of the State or to overthrow the socialist system, shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than five years. However, the ringleaders and anyone whose crime is monstrous shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not less than five years." [4]

The charge of inciting subversion has been leveled against a number of dissidents, Weiquan lawyers, and political reformers. Rights activists, along with international human rights organizations, have argued that article 105 is inconsistent both with China's own constitution and with international human rights standards, particularly in light of the lack of transparency and clear guidelines used in applying the laws. [5] According to the United Nations "Working Group on Arbitrary Detention", the vague and broadly defined wording of the legislation allowed the communication of thoughts and ideas to be regarded as "subversion", even without intentions to commit criminal acts. [6]

Accused

Among the most prominent Chinese citizens to have been charged with inciting subversion are:

  • Gao Zhisheng, sentenced in Dec 2006 of 3 years of imprisonment, 1 year deprivation of political rights. [7]
  • Guo Quan arrested in Nanjing on 13 Nov 2008. [8] He was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment in October 2009. [9]
  • Hu Jia, sentenced in April 2008 of 3 and half years of imprisonment. [10]
  • Huang Qi, was sentenced in Feb 2003 to 5 years of imprisonment, with 1 year deprivation of political rights. He was sentenced to three years imprisonment in November 2009 for "illegal procession of state secrets" [11]
  • Liu Xiaobo, arrested in 2008 due to the publication of Charter 08. He was sentenced to 11 years imprisonment and 2 years deprivation of political rights in December 2009. [12] Liu had three previous convictions beginning in 1989.
  • Ruan Xiaohuan, was sentenced in February 2023 to 7 years in prison, with 1 year deprivation of political rights. [13]
  • Tan Zuoren, was sentenced to 5 years in prison for “inciting subversion of state power” in February 2010 [14]
  • Wang Xiaoning, arrested for publishing controversial material online. In September 2003, Wang was convicted of charges of "inciting the overthrow of the state" and sentenced to ten years in prison. [15]
  • Yang Chunlin, sentenced in February 2008 to 5 years of imprisonment, with 2 year deprivation of political rights. [16]

Inciting separatism and sabotaging national unity

Inciting separatism and sabotaging national unity (煽动分裂国家、破坏国家统一) are offences typically used to prosecute members of separatist movements, such as the Tibetan independence movement and East Turkestan independence movement. [17]

Accused

Stealing state secrets

Stealing state secrets (窃取国家机密罪) is the crime of stealing state secrets and giving them to foreigners.

Espionage

Espionage, or being a foreign spy, carries a long jail term and possible death penalty.

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jiang Qing</span> Chinese political figure and wife of Mao Zedong (1914–1991)

Jiang Qing, also known as Madame Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary, actress, and major political figure during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). She was the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Communist Party and Paramount leader of China. She used the stage name Lan Ping (藍蘋) during her acting career, and was known by many other names. Jiang was best known for playing a major role in the Cultural Revolution and for forming the radical political alliance known as the Gang of Four.

Huang Qi is a Chinese webmaster and human rights activist from Sichuan. He is the co-founder of Tianwang Center for Missing Persons, along with his wife Zeng Li. Initially the mission of the organization was to help counter human trafficking that had become a swelling problem in the late 1990s, but later it was expanded to include campaign against human rights abuse. Huang is also the owner and webmaster of 64tianwang.com, a website originally intended to release news about people who had disappeared in the People's Republic of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hu Jia (activist)</span> Chinese activist

Hu Jia is a Chinese civil rights activist and noted critic of the Chinese Communist Party. His work has focused on the Chinese democracy movement, Chinese environmentalist movement, and HIV/AIDS in the People's Republic of China. Hu is the director of June Fourth Heritage & Culture Association, and he has been involved with AIDS advocacy as the executive director of the Beijing Aizhixing Institute of Health Education and as one of the founders of the non-governmental organization Loving Source. He has also been involved in work to protect the endangered Tibetan antelope. For his activism, Hu has received awards from several European bodies, such as the Paris City Council and the European Parliament, which awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought to him in December 2008.

Lü Gengsong is a Chinese writer and civil rights activist. He is mostly recognized as the author of the book A History of Chinese Communist Party Corrupt Officials, which appeared in Hong Kong in 2000. He was imprisoned in 2008 and 2016.

Yang Chunlin is a human rights activist in Heilongjiang, China. He has published numerous articles on human rights and land rights. In 2007, he helped organise a petition entitled, "We want human rights, not the Olympics." The petition reportedly collected over ten thousand signatures. Yang was convicted of "inciting subversion of state power" on 24 March 2008 and sentenced to five years in prison and two years of subsequent deprivation of political rights. Another activist involved with the open letter, Yuan Xianchen, was convicted of similar charged and sentenced to four years in prison. Yang was released from prison on 6 July 2012.

Guo Quan is a Chinese human rights activist and a dedicated scholar in philosophy and sociology. He founded the China New Democracy Party. He is a State Owned Enterprise cadre, secretary of the Nanjing Economic Restructuring Commission and Nanjing People's Court cadre.

Charter 08 is a manifesto initially signed by 303 Chinese dissident intellectuals and human rights activists. It was published on 10 December 2008, the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopting its name and style from the anti-Soviet Charter 77 issued by dissidents in Czechoslovakia. Since its release, more than 10,000 people inside and outside China have signed the charter. After unsuccessful reform efforts in 1989 and 1998 by the Chinese democracy movement, Charter 08 was the first challenge to one-party rule that declared the end of one-party rule to be its goal; it has been described as the first one with a unified strategy.

The Weiquan movement is a non-centralized group of lawyers, legal experts, and intellectuals in China who seek to protect and defend the civil rights of the citizenry through litigation and legal activism. The movement, which began in the early 2000s, has organized demonstrations, sought reform via the legal system and media, defended victims of human rights abuses, and written appeal letters, despite opposition from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Among the issues adopted by Weiquan lawyers are property and housing rights, protection for AIDS victims, environmental damage, religious freedom, freedom of speech and the press, and defending the rights of other lawyers facing disbarment or imprisonment.

Yuan Xianchen is a mainland Chinese lawyer and human rights activist from Heilongjiang province. On March 4, 2009, he was found guilty of "inciting subversion of state power" and sentenced to four years imprisonment and five years' deprivation of political rights. The verdict is currently being appealed, since Yuan claims evidence used against him in court was extracted by means of torture.

Tan Zuoren, from Chengdu, Sichuan province, People's Republic of China, is an environmentalist, writer and former editor of Literati magazine (文化人).

Inciting subversion of state power is a crime under the law of the People's Republic of China. It is article 105, paragraph 2 of the 1997 revision of the People's Republic of China's Penal Code.

Liu Xianbin, from Suining, Sichuan province, People's Republic of China, is a human rights activist, China Democracy Party organizer, writer and signer of Charter 08.

The 2011 crackdown on dissidents in China refers to the arrest of dozens of mainland Chinese rights lawyers, activists and grassroots agitators in a response to the 2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests. Since the protests, at least 54 Chinese activists have been arrested or detained by authorities in the biggest crackdown on dissent since the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. Since the start of the protests in mid-February 2011, human rights groups have claimed that more than 54 people have been arrested by authorities, some of whom have been charged with crimes. Among those arrested are bloggers who criticise the government such as Ai Weiwei, lawyers who pursue cases against the government, and human rights activists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chen Wei (dissident)</span> Chinese dissident and human rights activist

Chen Wei is a Chinese dissident and human rights activist. In December 2011, he was sentenced to nine years in prison for inciting subversion.

Jiang Tianyong is a human rights lawyer in the People's Republic of China. Based in Beijing, he is a prominent figure in the Weiquan movement, and has defended Tibetans, petitioners, Falun Gong adherents, HIV/AIDS victims, and other vulnerable groups. Jiang's human rights advocacy has drawn the ire of Chinese authorities; his applications for renewal of his legal license have been denied, and he has been detained on multiple occasions.

Qin Yongmin is a Chinese author, political commentator, human rights activist and co-founder of the Democratic Party of China.

The 709 Crackdown was a nationwide crackdown on Chinese lawyers and human rights activists instigated during the summer of 2015. It is known as the "709 crackdown" as it started on 9 July 2015.

Chishan Prison, also known as Hunan Provincial No.1 Prison, is a prison in Hunan of the People's Republic of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Huang Xueqin</span> Chinese independent journalist and womens rights activist

Huang Xueqin, also known as Sophia Huang Xueqin, is a Chinese #MeToo activist, women's rights activist, and independent journalist. Before working as an independent journalist, Huang served as an investigative journalist for several newspapers in Guangzhou, China. In September 2021, she and another activist, Wang Jianbing, disappeared and were believed to have been detained on charges of subversion of state power. In 2022, she received the Wallis Annenberg Justice for Women Journalists Award from the International Women's Media Foundation (IWMF), given to a journalist who is unjustly imprisoned. In June 2024, Huang was sentenced to five years in prison after having been found guilty of subverting state power, while Wang was sentenced to three and a half years.

Yu Wensheng is a Chinese human rights lawyer based in Beijing. He is known for criticizing the Chinese Communist Party and taking up politically sensitive cases against the government.

References

Footnotes

  1. "CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA (Adopted on December 4, 1982)". www.people.com.cn. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
  2. "In Chinese:教授被学生举报为反革命续:争议讲课内容曝光". Sina news. 5 December 2008. Retrieved 2009-04-30.
  3. 北大教授夏业良遭举报“反党反社会主义” |VOA News|2010年 11月 09日|
  4. The 1997 Criminal Code of the People's Republic of China
  5. Maggie Chen, 'Freedom of speech defence bound to fail: Courts do not Engage with rights discourse' [ permanent dead link ], South China Morning Post, 7 June 2010.
  6. Report submitted by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention - Visit to the People's Republic of China Archived 2012-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
  7. "China lawyer held for incitement", BBC News (13 October 2006). Retrieved on 24 November 2010.
  8. China democracy activist Guo Quan detained. Reported by THE ASSOCIATED PRESS|Date:13 Nov 2008|Cnews World watch
  9. "Reuters - China jails ex-professor 10 years for subversion". Archived from the original on 2020-10-03. Retrieved 2010-12-20.
  10. "Chinese civil rights activist sentenced for subversion". CNN. 3 April 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-05-27. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
  11. "China activist Huang Qi sentenced to three years". BBC News. 23 November 2009. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
  12. Beijing No. 1 Intermediate Court, Criminal Verdict no. (2009) yi zhong xing chu zi 3901, unofficial English translation in Human Rights in China, "International Community Speaks Out on Liu Xiaobo Verdict Archived 2012-12-04 at archive.today ," 30 December 2009.
  13. Gao, Feng (22 March 2023). "Shanghai court jails blogger for seven years over 'subversive' posts". Radio Free Asia . Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
  14. "China sentences activist who investigated children's deaths in 2008 quake to 5 years' jail" [ dead link ]. Gillian Wong, The Canadian Press, retrieved on 2009-02-09.
  15. Coonan, Clifford (2007-04-20). "Chinese couple sue Yahoo! in US over torture case". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 2007-10-15. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
  16. Associated Press 2007, 'China arrests anti-Olympics activist', ABC News (US), 3 September. Retrieved 3 March 2008.
  17. "China". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 2022-10-28.
  18. "Dalai Lama group urged to abandon separatism". China Daily. 2012-05-16.
  19. "EastSouthWestNorth: The Case of Shi Tao" . Retrieved 2007-01-21.
  20. "(Chinese)文革学者宋永毅获释返美". BBC Chinese.com. 29 Jan 2000. Retrieved 2009-05-17.
  21. Thestandard.com. "The standard.com Archived 2008-02-08 at the Wayback Machine ." The spy who came in from the cold. Retrieved on 2008-02-09.
  22. "Profile: Rebiya Kadeer". BBC News. 17 March 2005. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
  23. Yang, Benjamin. [1998] (1998). Deng: a political biography. M.E. Sharpe publishing. ISBN   1-56324-722-4, ISBN   978-1-56324-722-4. pg 207.