Maritime security

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Maritime security is an umbrella term informed to classify issues in the maritime domain that are often related to national security, marine environment, economic development, and human security. [1] [2] This includes the world's oceans but also regional seas, territorial waters, rivers and ports, where seas act as a “stage for geopolitical power projection, interstate warfare or militarized disputes, as a source of specific threats such as piracy, or as a connector between states that enables various phenomena from colonialism to globalization ”. [3] The theoretical concept of maritime security has evolved from a narrow perspective of national naval power projection towards a buzzword that incorporates many interconnected sub-fields. The definition of the term maritime security varies and while no internationally agreed definition exists, the term has often been used to describe both existing, and new regional and international challenges to the maritime domain. The buzzword character enables international actors to discuss these new challenges without the need to define every potentially contested aspect of it. [4] Maritime security is of increasing concern to the global shipping industry, where there are a wide range of security threats and challenges. [5] Some of the practical issues clustered under the term of maritime security include crimes such as piracy, armed robbery at sea, trafficking of people and illicit goods, illegal fishing or marine pollution. [6] War, warlike activity, maritime terrorism and interstate rivalry (such as the Territorial disputes in the South China Sea or conflict in the Strait of Hormuz) are also maritime security concerns. [5]

Contents

While a concern throughout history for nation states, maritime security has evolved significantly since the early 2000s, when in particular concerns over terrorist attacks on port facilities sparked interest in security in the maritime domain and led to the creation of the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code. [5] The ISPS Code is enforced through Chapter XI-2 of the SOLAS Convention. [5] Most littoral states and international organisations have also outlined maritime security strategies. It is in particular piracy in Southeast Asia, off the coast of Somalia and in West Africa which has triggered recognition for the detrimental effects of maritime insecurities for economic development, human security as well as the environment. [6] Maritime security is often transnational and goes beyond the maritime domain itself (see liminality). It is characterized as being cross-jurisdictional and/or highly jurisdictional complex. [1]

History of maritime security

Historically, the sea has been subject to different concepts of law and power. The term mare nostrum (our sea in Latin) was coined by the Romans in 30 BC to 117 AD as a term to describe its control of the Mediterranean Sea. From this concept of the sealing of a sea, the legal concept of mare clausum (closed sea in legal Latin) was developed during the age of discovery between the 15th and 17th century. The sea became a restricted space, organised between Portugal and Spain. Maritime activity was exclusively reserved for the enhancement of national security through naval military. [7] In 1609, Hugo Grotius, a Dutch philosopher and jurist, published the book mare liberum where he introduced the concept of the free sea (mare liberum is translated to free sea in legal Latin). In his book, Grotius laid out the foundation of the freedom of navigation at sea. The sea was seen as international territory, where every nation was free to conduct trade. [8]

Grotius’ concept of the free sea was superseded by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). This international agreement first came into effect in 1958 as the Convention on the High Seas (UNCLOS I). The most recent agreement is UNCLOS III, which is active since 1994. It now includes various zones and jurisdictions, including internal, territorial, and archipelagic waters. It further defines the exclusive sovereign waters of a state called contiguous zone, and the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) in which a state has the sole exploitation rights of resources like oil and fish. The latter can be extended by the continental shelf, a natural prolongation of the territory of the respective state. [9] Maritime security has until then been mostly concerned with interstate naval conflicts and piracy at sea.

The warship USS Cole after an attack in October 2000 while she was being refueled in Aden harbour, Yemen Defense.gov News Photo 001012-N-0000N-001.jpg
The warship USS Cole after an attack in October 2000 while she was being refueled in Aden harbour, Yemen

As a concept and agenda maritime security has evolved since the late 1990s and early 2000s. In particular concerns over terrorist attacks on port facilities sparked new security interests in the maritime domain. Notable events influencing the maritime security paradigm are the USS Cole bombing [10] in 2000 and the September 11 attacks in 2001. [7] Several states and international organisations have since outlined maritime security strategies. Many best practices and standards regarding physical maritime security like the ISPS Code from 2002 as a consequence of the attacks have been published by regulating authorities or the maritime industry. [11] In the light of the perceived terrorist threat, the scope of the maritime security concept began to broaden from the narrow focus on interstate military confrontation to include other issues. [12] (See also critical security studies)

It is in particular the surge of piracy during the early 2000s in Southeast Asia, off the coast of Somalia and in West Africa which has triggered recognition for the detrimental effects of maritime insecurities. [13] As a result of the economic costs for world trade and the physical threats to seafarers, maritime security gained a significant increase of attention by the shipping industry, insurers and policy makers around the world. [4] Piracy was also the starting point of many international relations scholars for approaching maritime security as a concept. [7] [13] [14] In the wake of the Mumbai Terrorist attack in November 2008, an Indian scholar even lamented the serious lack of maritime vision in his government's policies to preserve India's expanding interests, thereby coining the catch-phrase "sea-blindness". [15]

One effect of piracy has been the development of regional cooperation initiatives. In Southeast Asia for example, the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCaap) has been initiated in 2004 and includes now an Information Sharing Centre (ISC). Besides maritime domain awareness (MDA) more topics began to become subject of these cooperation initiatives. The International Maritime Organization Djibouti Code of Conduct (DCoC), adopted in 2009, was originally an agreement on cooperation between East African and Southwest Asian states to counter piracy. [16] Since its revision and the complementary Jeddah Amendment to the DCoC of 2017, it now also includes other illicit maritime activities than piracy like human trafficking or illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU). [17]

Regulatory environment

Maritime security is facilitated at sea and in ports by several international regulations and codes from the International Maritime Organization. [18] The primary Code is the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code which entered into force in 2004. [19] The United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) which took place in 1984 gives a framework to piracy prohibition. [20] Since 2008, the United Nations Security Council edited some Resolutions concerning the specific Somali case like for example the 1846th in 2008 and the 1918th in 2010, [21] in order to make member countries put piracy as a penal crime in their domestic legislation. Those resolutions were ratified, but despite ratification, few countries have applied that resolution in their domestic law. In 2011, NATO put the maritime security issue in its Alliance Maritime Strategy objectives. [22]

Despite the few countries who applied UN resolutions focused on Somalia piracy in their national legislation, many have created national agencies or bureaus specialized in maritime Security, [23] like the Pakistan Maritime Security Agency [24] in Pakistan. The first country to put the problem on their agenda were the United States in 2004 with the Maritime Security Policy. It marked the beginning of United States' Maritime Security Operations, some maritime military actions other than wars, charged to detect and prevent illicit operations.

Practical issues of maritime security

Piracy and armed robbery

Armed pirates in the Indian Ocean near Somalia (see engaged pirate vessels). Suspected pirate skiff near Somalia.jpg
Armed pirates in the Indian Ocean near Somalia (see engaged pirate vessels).

Piracy and armed robbery remains an ongoing issue in maritime security. [6] [25] The ICC International Maritime Bureau (IMB) Piracy and Armed Robbery report states that attacks against ships and their crews have risen in 2019/2020. [26] They identify that the Gulf of Guinea off West Africa is increasingly dangerous for commercial shipping, accounting for just over 90% of maritime kidnappings worldwide. [26] However, the report noted that the number of ship hijackings in the first half of 2020 was at their lowest level since 1993. [26] In total, IMB's Piracy Reporting Centre (PRC) recorded 98 incidents of piracy and armed robbery in the first half of 2020, up from 78 in Q2 2019. [26] Some areas of Southeast Asia, including the Straits of Malacca and the Celebes Sea are also areas where piracy and armed robbery take place at sea, although in most cases, armed robbery is the most prevalent. [25]

The West Indian Ocean is an area with maritime security concerns for shipping and governments. [25] Somali piracy started to increase in the early 2000s, after a civil war affected the area. [25] Between 2008 and 2013, large numbers of attacks against merchant ships in the Indian Ocean occurred, gaining international attention. [25] This eventually led to the privatisation of maritime security as an increasing number of shipping companies hired private maritime security companies to protect their crews, ships and cargoes (known as 'Privately Contracted Armed Security Personnel or PCASP)'. This development affects governments, navies and other security agencies [27] because it is a form of privatised security, one of the core functions of modern states. The maritime industry has developed an ISO certification (ISO 28007:2015) for the provision of privately contracted armed security personnel on board ships. [28] The presence of PCASPs on ships creates complex legal issues and in most cases, permission must be given from the ship's flag State before armed personnel can attend the vessel and this usually involves confirming Rules for the Use of Force (RUF). [25]

Terrorism

Maritime terrorism is also an issue for maritime security and the definition has been clarified by Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific as to be "the undertaking of terrorist acts and activities within the maritime environment, using or against vessels or fixed platforms at sea or in port, or against any one of their passengers or personnel, against coastal facilities or settlements, including tourist resorts, port areas and port towns or cities." The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, 1988 defines maritime terrorism as "Any attempt or threat to seize control of a ship by force; To damage or destroy a ship or its cargo; To injure or kill a person on board a ship; or To endanger in any way the safe navigation of a ship that moves from the territorial waters". [29] Some terrorist attacks against maritime targets are very rare compared to the total number of attacks noted by the global terrorism database, however notable cases are famous like the hijacking of the ship Santa Maria in 1961 and the USS Cole bombing in 2000. The September 11 attacks resulted in the global community agreeing on the wider need to improve security in the maritime domain and this led to the creation of the ISPS Code. Since the introduction of the ISPS Code there has not been a major maritime terror attack. [30]

Smuggling and drug trafficking

Panamanian ship Gatun following seizure of 20 tons of cocaine by the United States Coast Guard. MV Gatun Cocaine seizure by USCG.jpg
Panamanian ship Gatun following seizure of 20 tons of cocaine by the United States Coast Guard.

The illegal drug trade and trafficking of other prohibited items such as weapons is a key issue that affects global maritime security. [6] In particular, Maritime drug trafficking in Latin America is the primary mean of transportation of illegal drugs produced in this region to global consumer markets, primarily in the form of cocaine from the Andean region of South America. [31] [32] The smuggling of drugs through the sea is a security problem for all the countries of the Latin American region. [32] [33] Drug trafficking organizations have developed various complex systems for the transportation and distribution of illegal drugs, where several countries in the region serve as points of contact for the distribution of illegal products, with an estimated 90% of the cocaine produced in the Andean region transported at some point by sea. [34]

Smuggling also includes legally allowed items brought in without declaration to avoid customs charges, such as tobacco. This poses issues for maritime security, as often the smuggling of such items is connected to organised crime. [35] The smuggling of drugs through the sea is a security problem for all the countries of the Latin American region. [1] [33]

While traffickers sometimes make use of narco submarines to transport drugs, the primary method of transfer is utilising existing commercial shipping, either hidden on board or placed within legitimate cargoes such as containers. [36] Large ships present organised criminals with the opportunity to transport high volumes of drugs from producing to consuming countries. [36] The volume of illegal drugs being moved in commercial shipping continues to increase and therefore the risk to ships and ports continues to increase, with ships’ crews often unaware that their ship or its cargo are being used as a cover to transport illegal drugs. [36] However, if illegal drugs are found on board by local customs or law enforcement agencies, innocent companies and seafarers may potentially be exposed to huge financial fines or penalties, or even the risk of imprisonment. [36]

Unsafe mixed migration at sea

Issues such as war, political instability, famine and poverty have resulted in many thousands of people travelling by sea to find better conditions of living. [37] This migration poses several potential security concerns for coastal States, including the safety and legal issues arising from Illegal immigration but also the related criminal aspects of exploitation and human trafficking. [37] Geographic areas principally include the Mediterranean Sea, the Horn of Africa, Southeast Asia and the Caribbean. [37]

Since the beginning of the European migrant crisis in 2015, the effects of unsafe mixed migration on maritime security have been shown by both the number of ships arriving from Africa to the European coast (demonstrating the permeability of Europe's maritime borders) but also by the visible humanitarian consequences of vessels transporting migrants sinking, leading to deaths at sea. [38]

For shipping, Stowaways remaining a practical security concern while at ports and anchorages. [39] However, the presence of stowaways also presents complex legal issues, involving refugees, the shipping company, ship and ship's crew, as well as the flag State of the ship and the Port State. [39]

Port security

Security signage indicating ISPS Code access requirements in the port of Southampton ISPS code Southampton.jpg
Security signage indicating ISPS Code access requirements in the port of Southampton

Port security is part of a broader definition concerning maritime security and refers to the defence, law and treaty enforcement, and counterterrorism activities that fall within the port and surrounding maritime area. It includes the protection of the seaports themselves and the protection and inspection of the cargo moving through the ports. Security risks related to ports often focus on either the physical security of the port, or security risks within the maritime supply chain. [40]

War/Warlike Risks

Armed conflict is an area of maritime security, both in the risks for shipping and users of the sea, but also in the wider context of maritime conflict and Naval warfare. [39] War like risks are of increasing concern for maritime users and governments in areas such as the Persian Gulf. Strait of Hormuz and Southern Red Sea Region where conflicts such as the Yemen Conflict and international events such as the ongoing 2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis continue to poses maritime security concerns. [39]

Cyber Security

Owing to the increased technology and connectivity on modern ships in the 21st century, cyber security has become a maritime security concern. [39] [41] Cyber Security has come under increased focus in the maritime industry since the IMO required cyber security to be addressed under the International Safety Management Code of ships from 1 January 2021. [41]

There are significant cyber security gaps on ships. These are due to a lack of awareness from ship operators and seafarers. Also, navigation equipment such as ECDIS, GPS, AIS, RADAR can be compromised. [42] [43]

Theoretical approaches to maritime security

Realist’ approach to maritime security

In the traditional realist school of thought of international relations, maritime security is mainly regarded as a matter of sea power (also command of the sea). In peacetime, sea power is associated with countries securing the ability to conduct transport and trade via the sea. In wartime, sea power describes the agency of navies to attack other navies or other countries sea transportation means. [44]

One more recent definitions in realist’ thinking sees maritime security as “The protection of a state’s land and maritime territory, infrastructure, economy, environment and society from certain harmful acts occurring at sea”. [45] Some scholars then argue that maritime security can be classified into two different types, ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ security. [44]

‘Hard’ maritime security signifying sea power and domination of the sea and ‘soft’ maritime security being used for threats concerning “ocean resources, transportation and trade, and exchange of information”. [46]

A number of constructivist’ scholars have criticised this approach to maritime security where defining what a maritime security issue actually is, often becomes a collection of topics associated with threats in the maritime domain. The US Naval Operations Concept from 2006 for example listed “ensuring the freedom of navigation, the flow of commerce and the protection of ocean resources, as well as securing the maritime domain from nation-state threats, terrorism, drug trafficking and other forms of transnational crime, piracy, environmental destruction and illegal seaborne immigration” [47] as the goal of maritime security.

Liberalist’ approach to maritime security

Central to the liberal school of thought approach in international relations to maritime security is the regulation of the maritime domain. [3] Some legal scholars have defined maritime security as a “stable order of the oceans subject to the rule of law at sea”. [48] The liberalist’ approach emphasises that international law has been a means to transform the traditional way of countries power projection on the sea through their navies towards a cooperation in order to achieve common goals. [49] The focus of the liberal paradigm has been criticised as being mainly limited to technicalities and formalities of international law, but not helping understanding the governance aspects of maritime security that go beyond legal and normative regulation. [1]

However, it has also been pointed out that the liberalist approach is a much better reflection of reality than the highly theoretical constructivist approach, explained in detail below. Dirk Siebels, an expert on maritime security, [50] has explained that regional agreements between governments are generally needed to define maritime security – or good order at sea – for the respective region. Governments in West Africa, Southeast Asia, Europe or other regions may have different priorities, “yet it is their order, defined in negotiations and in line with international law”. [51]

Constructivist’ approach to maritime security

Constructivism is based on the notion, that security is a socially constructed concept. Rather than accepting maritime security as a given list of threats and means, the constructivist school of thought is interested in looking at the relations and how the concept of maritime security comes to be through actions, interactions and perceptions. [52] Constructivists’ look at how different understandings of maritime security are informed by different political interests and normative understandings.

Professor Christian Bueger has proposed three frameworks for how to deconstruct concepts of maritime security by various actors: the maritime security matrix that helps conceptualise relations, the securitization framework that looks at claims that are being made in relation to maritime security, and practice theory to analyse what is actually being done in the name of maritime security. [4]

Maritime security matrix

The maritime security matrix looks at the semantic relations between maritime security and other maritime concepts (see also semiotics) using four dimensions to relate and situate maritime security topics in and to the general concept of ‘maritime security’:

A matrix may have each concept in a corner of a square, maritime security being situated in the centre. Depending on what is being analysed, concepts like human trafficking can then be situated e.g. between ‘maritime security’, ‘human security’, and ‘economic development’. [4]

Securitization framework

Securitization is a framework of international relations originally developed by Ole Wæver and Barry Buzan. Sometimes called the Copenhagen School , securitization looks at who is making claims (using some form of language) in the name of security to carryout measures that would otherwise not easily be justified and accepted. [53]

Practice theory

The framework of practice theory enables to analyse what kind of activities are actually conducted in the name of security. Practice in this theory is seen as patterns of doing and saying things that lead to the implementation of maritime security measures. [54] According to Bueger five practices fit within the conventional spectrum of maritime security:

  • Maritime domain awareness (MDA, see also Information Sharing Centre (ISC))
  • Activities at sea (e.g. patrols, inspections, exercises)
  • Law enforcement activities (e.g. arrests, trials and prosecutions)
  • Coordination activities (e.g. forums, conferences, harmonizing legal frameworks)
  • Naval diplomacy (e.g. capacity building, warfare) This type of activity might not be associated with maritime security, but rather with war or other related concepts.

These activities can be seen through two different perspective. The focus can either be laid on what activities belong to the everyday routine of maritime security actors or on the measures that are done in exceptional circumstances. [4]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Maritime Organization</span> Specialised agency of the United Nations

The International Maritime Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations responsible for regulating shipping. The IMO was established following agreement at a UN conference held in Geneva in 1948 and the IMO came into existence ten years later, meeting for the first time on 17 March 1958. Headquartered in London, United Kingdom, IMO currently has 175 Member States and three Associate Members.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Ship and Port Facility Security Code</span> Maritime treaty

The International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code is an amendment to the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention (1974/1988) on Maritime security including minimum security arrangements for ships, ports and government agencies. Having come into force in 2004, it prescribes responsibilities to governments, shipping companies, shipboard personnel, and port/facility personnel to "detect security threats and take preventive measures against security incidents affecting ships or port facilities used in international trade."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Port security</span> Security of commerce ports

Port security is part of a broader definition concerning maritime security. It refers to the defense, law and treaty enforcement, and Counterterrorism activities that fall within the port and maritime domain. It includes the protection of the seaports themselves and the protection and inspection of the cargo moving through the ports. Security risks related to ports often focus on either the physical security of the port, or security risks within the maritime supply chain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piracy in the Strait of Malacca</span> Piracy in the China Sea

Piracy in the Strait of Malacca has long been a threat to ship owners and the mariners who ply the 900 km-long sea lane. In recent years, coordinated patrols by Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore along with increased security on vessels have sparked a sharp downturn in piracy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maritime security operations</span>

Maritime security operations (MSO) are the actions of modern naval forces to "combat sea-based terrorism and other illegal activities, such as hijacking, piracy, and slavery, also known as human trafficking." Ships assigned to such operations may also assist seafaring vessels in distress. These activities are part of an overall category of activities which fall short of open warfare called military operations other than war (MOOTW). MSO also involve the marine environmental protection, creating a safer and clean environment.

Maritime Security Regimes are codes and conventions of behavior agreed upon by coastal states to provide a degree of security within territorial waters and on the high seas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea</span>

Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea affects a number of countries in West Africa as well as the wider international community. By 2011, it had become an issue of global concern. Pirates in the Gulf of Guinea are often part of heavily armed criminal enterprises, who employ violent methods to steal oil cargo. In 2012, the International Maritime Bureau, Oceans Beyond Piracy and the Maritime Piracy Humanitarian Response Program reported that the number of vessels attacks by West African pirates had reached a world high, with 966 seafarers attacked during the year. According to the Control Risks Group, pirate attacks in the Gulf of Guinea had by mid-November 2013 maintained a steady level of around 100 attempted hijackings in the year, a close second behind the Strait of Malacca in Southeast Asia. Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea continues to be a concern to the shipping industry, which is affected significantly. At the same time, governments in the region generally highlight that the fight against piracy requires a broad understanding of maritime security throughout the Gulf of Guinea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Witherby Publishing Group</span> Publisher of maritime reference material

Witherby Publishing Group, formerly known as Witherby Seamanship, is a technical publisher of maritime, nautical and navigation training, reference and regulatory materials. The company is the resulting merger of Witherby Books and Seamanship International in January 2008. Beginning with its origins in 1740 it lays claim to being the oldest independent publisher in the English-speaking world.

Piracy off the coast of Somalia occurs in the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel, and Somali Sea, in Somali territorial waters and other surrounding places and has a long and troubled history with different perspectives from different communities. It was initially a threat to international fishing vessels during the early 2000s, only to rapidly escalate and expand to international shipping during the War in Somalia (2006–2009).

The International Chamber of Shipping is one of the world's principal shipping organisations, representing around 80% of the world's merchant tonnage through membership by national shipowners' associations. It is concerned with maritime regulatory, operational and legal issues. Its membership includes over 40 national shipowner organisations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piracy in the 21st century</span> Aspect of modern history

Piracy in the 21st century has taken place in a number of waters around the world, including the Gulf of Guinea, Strait of Malacca, Sulu and Celebes Seas, Indian Ocean, and Falcon Lake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas</span> Historical and contemporary piracy in the waters between Borneo and the western Philippines

The Sulu and Celebes Seas, a semi-enclosed sea area and porous region that covers an area of space around 1 million square kilometres, have been subject to illegal maritime activities since the pre-colonial era and continue to pose a maritime security threat to bordering nations up to this day. While piracy has long been identified as an ubiquitous challenge, being historically interwoven with the region, recent incidents also include other types of maritime crimes such as kidnapping and the trafficking of humans, arms and drugs. Attacks mostly classify as 'armed robbery against ships' according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as they occur in maritime zones that lie under the sovereignty of a coastal state. Incidents in the Sulu and Celebes Seas specifically involve the abduction of crew members. Since March 2016, the Information Sharing Centre (ISC) of the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP) reports a total of 86 abductions, leading to the issue of a warning for ships transpassing the area.

Maritime domain awareness (MDA) is defined by the International Maritime Organization as the effective understanding of anything associated with the maritime domain that could impact the security, safety, economy, or environment. MDA is said to work as a ‘key enabler’ for other maritime security issues, such as anti-piracy patrols, in the way that in order to do effective patrols you need to have the ability of conducting effective MDA. The maritime domain is defined as all areas and things of, on, under, relating to, adjacent to, or bordering on a sea, ocean, or other navigable waterway, including all maritime-related activities, infrastructure, people, cargo, and vessels and other conveyances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Offshore installation security</span>

Offshore installation security is the protection of maritime installations from intentional harm. As part of general maritime security, offshore installation security is defined as the installation's ability to combat unauthorized acts designed to cause intentional harm to the installation. The security of offshore installations is vital as not only may a threat result in personal, economic, and financial losses, but it also concerns the strategic aspects of the petroleum market and geopolitics.

International piracy law is international law that is meant to protect against piracy. Throughout history and legal precedents, pirates have been defined as hostis humani generis, Latin for "the enemy of all mankind". The United Nations has codified much of the law in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which defines different types of piracy and ways to combat it.

Maritime terrorism in Southeast Asia refers to acts of extreme maritime violence committed with political motives within the Southeast Asian region. Despite seaborne terrorist attacks accounting for only 2% of all international terrorist incidents from 1978 to 2008, according to RAND's Terrorism Database, Southeast Asia has proven a hotbed of maritime terrorism. Due to the high frequency of pirates in the region, many Southeast Asian-based terrorist groups have appropriated piratical tactics in carrying out their violent political struggles. In 2003, the International Maritime Bureau reported that out of the 445 actual or attempted piratical attacks on merchant vessels, 189 occurred in Southeast Asia, which was more cases than either Africa or Latin America, with 121 attacks occurring in Indonesian waters and 35 attacks occurring in Malaysian and Singaporean waters. In 2004, while the number of actual and attempted attacks fell to 325, Southeast Asia remained at the top of the regional rankings, with 93 incidents occurring in Indonesian waters. Between 2014 and 2018, 242 attacks occurred in Southeast Asia, with the majority occurring in Indonesian waters. The most popular weapons of choice among Southeast Asian maritime terrorists have been explosive devices and firearms, which were used in roughly 60% of maritime attacks in the region.

The grey-zone describes the space in between peace and war in which state and non-state actors engage in competition.

As a practice of piracy, petro-piracy, also sometimes called oil piracy or petrol piracy, is defined as “illegal taking of oil after vessel hijacks, which are sometimes executed with the use of motorships” with huge potential financial rewards. Petro-piracy is mostly a practice that is connected to and originates from piracy in the Gulf of Guinea, but examples of petro-piracy outside of the Gulf of Guinea is not uncommon. At least since 2008, the Gulf of Guinea has been home to pirates practicing petro-piracy by targeting the region's extensive oil industry. Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea has risen in the last years to become the hot spot of piracy globally with 76 actual and attempted attacks, according to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB). Most of these attacks in the Gulf of Guinea take place in inland or territorial waters, but recently pirates have been proven to venture further out to sea, e.g. crew members were kidnapped from the tanker David B. 220 nautical miles outside of Benin. Pirates most often targets vessels carrying oil products and kidnappings of crew for ransom. IMB reports that countries in the Gulf of Guinea, Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Togo, Congo, and, especially, Nigeria, have experienced petro-piracy and kidnappings of crew as the most common trends of piracy attacks in the Gulf of Guinea.

Danish shipping's counter-piracy strategy is necessary as Denmark operates one of the world's five largest shipping nations in terms of operated fleet, controlling around 10% of global shipping. At any given time, there are approximately 70 Danish-controlled ships in the Indian Ocean and 30 ships in the Gulf of Guinea. This makes piracy in these areas is a significant concern for the Danish shipping industry and for the Danish state. In 2012, when Somali piracy was at its height, the piracy cost of Danish shipping was estimated to be between 130 and 260 million Euros.

The European Union is one of the main anti-piracy actors in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG). At any one time, the EU has on average 30 owned or flagged vessels in the region. The piracy in the Gulf of Guinea is therefore a threat towards the EU, and as a response the organization adopted its strategy on the Gulf of Guinea in March 2014. The Strategy on the Gulf of Guinea is a 12-page document with the scope of the problem, what have previously been done, responses and the way forward with four strategic objectives. The EU's overriding objective are:

  1. to build a common understanding in regional countries of the threat and its long-term effect and the need to address the piracy issues among the regional and international community.
  2. to help the governments in the region to ensure maritime awareness, security and the rule of law by building robust institutions and maritime administrations.
  3. to assist vulnerable economies to withstand criminal or violent activity and to build resilience to communities.
  4. to strengthen cooperation between the countries and organizations on the region to fight threats both on land and sea.

References

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  2. ↑ Siebels, Dirk (2020). Maritime Security in East and West Africa: A Tale of Two Regions. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 19–24. ISBN   9783030226886.
  3. 1 2 Bueger, Christian; Edmunds, Timothy (November 2017). "Beyond seablindness: a new agenda for maritime security studies". International Affairs. 93 (6): 1295. doi: 10.1093/ia/iix174 . hdl: 1983/a9bb7d69-6274-4515-8db4-886079ca3668 .
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Bueger, Christian (March 2015). "What is maritime security?". Marine Policy. 53: 159–164. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2014.12.005 .
  5. 1 2 3 4 Maritime Security - A comprehensive Guide for Shipowners, Seafarers and Administrations. Livingston: Witherby Publishing Group and the International Chamber of Shipping. 2021. p. 3. ISBN   9781913997014.
  6. 1 2 3 4 McNicholas, Michael (April 2016). Maritime Security: An Introduction. Butterworth-Heinemann.
  7. 1 2 3 Klein, Natalie (May 2011). Maritime Security and the Law of the Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199566532.
  8. ↑ Grotius, Hugo (2004). Armitage, David (ed.). The Free Sea. Liberty Fund, Incorporated.
  9. ↑ Tanaka, Yoshifumi (2012). The International Law of the Sea. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
  10. ↑ Parfomak, Paul W.; Fritelli, John (2007). Maritime Security: Potential Terrorist Attacks and Protection Priorities (PDF). Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service.
  11. ↑ International Code for the Security of Ships and of Port Facilities (ISPS Code)
  12. ↑ Peoples, Columba; Vaughan-Williams, Nick (2015). Critical security studies, an introduction (Second ed.). London, New York: NY: Routledge.
  13. 1 2 Onuoha, Freedom C. (September 2009). "Sea piracy and maritime security in the Horn of Africa : the Somali coast and Gulf of Aden in perspective : feature". African Security Review. 18 (3): 31–44. doi:10.1080/10246029.2009.9627540. S2CID   151661202.
  14. ↑ Bueger, Christian (September 2014). "Piracy studies: Academic responses to the return of an ancient menace". Cooperation and Conflict. 49 (3): 406–416. doi:10.1177/0010836713484117. S2CID   144668470.
  15. ↑ Khurana, Gurpreet S. India's Sea-blindness, Indian Defence Review, Vol. 24.1 (January–March 2009) (http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/indias-sea-blindness/0/)
  16. ↑ Djibouti Code of Conduct (DCoC), 2009
  17. ↑ "Regional maritime piracy agreement broadened to cover other illicit maritime activity". International Maritime Organization (IMO). 13 January 2017.
  18. ↑ STCW Maritime Security Regulations
  19. ↑ "Maritime Security". International Maritime Organization. 2020-07-17.
  20. ↑ "Piracy Under International Law". www.un.org. Retrieved 2017-10-06.
  21. ↑ "United Nations Documents on Piracy". www.un.org. Retrieved 2017-10-06.
  22. ↑ "NATO - Alliance Maritime Strategy Official Text". 2011-03-18. Retrieved 2017-10-05.
  23. ↑ "National Legislation on Piracy". www.un.org. Retrieved 2017-10-09.
  24. ↑ NATO (2011-03-18). "Nato Official Text - Maritime Security Agency". Nato.int. Retrieved 2017-10-05.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maritime Security - A comprehensive Guide for Shipowners, Seafarers and Administrations. Livingston: Witherby Publishing Group and the International Chamber of Shipping. 2021. pp. 7–11. ISBN   9781913997014.
  26. 1 2 3 4 "Q1/Q2 Piracy Report". International Chamber of Commerce and International Maritime Bureay. 2020-07-17.
  27. ↑ Siebels, Dirk (21 January 2018). "Privatisation of maritime security: Implications for governments, navies and other security agencies". Academia.edu. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  28. ↑ "ISO 28007:2015 Guidelines for Private Maritime Security Companies (PMSC) providing privately contracted armed security personnel (PCASP) on board ships (and pro forma contract)". International Standards Organization. 2020-07-17.
  29. ↑ "Maritime Terrorism". Stable Seas. 2020-07-17.
  30. ↑ Lars H. Bergqvist. "The ISPS-Code and Maritime Terrorism". Center for International Maritime Security. 2014-07-15. Retrieved 2017-10-09.
  31. ↑ Cocaine: A European Union perspective in the global context (Publication). (2010). Lisbon: EMCDDA–Europol joint publications. doi:10.2810/16059
  32. 1 2 Perez, Ana Lilia (2014). Mares de Cocaina. Grijalbo Mondari. ISBN   978-6073126359.
  33. 1 2 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2012). Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean. A Threat Assessment. (September)
  34. ↑ Guerrero, Javier. "Innovation in the War on Drugs: Narcosubs". The Marine Executive.
  35. ↑ "Illicit Tobacco Trade" (PDF). Financial Action Task Force. 2020-07-17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2020-07-17.
  36. 1 2 3 4 Drug Trafficking and Drug Abuse On Board Ship. Witherby Publishing Group. 2019. ISBN   978-1-85609-808-3.
  37. 1 2 3 "Migrants at Sea" (PDF). North of England P&I Association. 2020-07-18.
  38. ↑ "Unsafe mixed migration by sea". International Maritime Organization. 2020-07-17.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 Maritime Security - A comprehensive Guide for Shipowners, Seafarers and Administrations. Livingston: Witherby Publishing Group and the International Chamber of Shipping. 2021. pp. 12–16. ISBN   9781913997014.
  40. ↑ "The importance of port security". Marine Insight. 2020-07-18.
  41. 1 2 Cyber Security Workbook for On Board Ship Use. Livingston: Witherby Publishing Group. 2020. ISBN   9781856099462.
  42. ↑ "Cyberwarfare - Pelorus Maritime Education".
  43. ↑ Karahalios, Hristos (2020). "Appraisal of a Ship's Cybersecurity efficiency: The case of piracy". Journal of Transportation Security. 13 (3–4): 179–201. doi:10.1007/s12198-020-00223-1. S2CID   224954063.
  44. 1 2 Till, Geoffrey (2018). Seapower : A Guide for the Twenty-First Century. Cass Series: Naval Policy and History (4.th ed.). Milton: Routledge.
  45. ↑ Klein, Natalie (2011). Maritime Security and the Law of the Sea. Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN   9780199566532.
  46. ↑ Klein, Natalie (2011). Maritime Security and the Law of the Sea. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN   9780199566532.
  47. ↑ Naval Operations Concept 2006 (PDF). Chief of Naval Operations – Command of the Marine Corps. p. 14.
  48. ↑ Kraska, James; Pedrozo, Raul A. (2013). International Maritime Security Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 1. ISBN   978-9004233560.
  49. ↑ Kaska, James; Pedrozo, Raul A. (2013). International Maritime Security Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN   978-9004233560.
  50. ↑ Siebels, Dirk. "Research".
  51. ↑ Siebels, Dirk (2020). Maritime Security in East and West Africa: A Tale of Two Regions. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 21. ISBN   9783030226886.
  52. ↑ Aradau, Claudia; Huysman, Jef; Neal, Andrew; Voelkner, Nadine, eds. (2015). Critical Security Methods. New Frameworks for Analysis. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-71294-1.
  53. ↑ Buzan, Barry; Wæver, Ole; de Wilde, Jaap (1998). Security: a new framework for analysis. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN   9781555877842.
  54. ↑ Bueger, Christian (2016). Balzaq, Thierry; Cavelty, Myriam D. (eds.). Security as Practice. Routledge. pp. 126–135.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
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