Ship with armed soldiers - De re militari (15th century), f.231v - BL Add MS 24945
De re militari (Latin "Concerning Military Matters"), also Epitoma rei militaris, is a treatise by the Late Latin writer Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus about Roman warfare and military principles as a presentation of the methods and practices in use during the height of the Roman Empire and responsible for its power. The extant text dates to the 5th century.
Vegetius emphasized things such as training of soldiers as a disciplined force, orderly strategy, maintenance of supply lines and logistics, quality leadership and use of tactics and even deceit to ensure advantage over the opposition. He was concerned about selection of good soldiers and recommended hard training of at least four months before the soldier was accepted into the ranks. The leader of the army (dux) had to take care of the men under his command and keep himself informed about the movements of the enemy to gain advantage in the battle.
De re militari became a military guide in the Middle Ages. Even after the introduction of gunpowder to Europe, the work was carried by general officers and their staffs as a field guide to methods. Friends and subordinates customarily presented embellished copies as gifts to leaders. It went on into the 18th and 19th centuries as a source of policy and strategy to the major states of Europe. In that sense, De re militari is a projection of Roman civilization into modern times and a continuation of its influence on its cultural descendants.
Authorship and composition
The author of De re militari was Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who lived in the late 4th century and possibly the early 5th century. The name of the work has a number of variants, including Epitoma Rei Militaris, but there are other problems with accepting it at face value as the verbatim work of Vegetius. Some of the manuscripts have a note that the text was revised for the 7th time in Constantinople in the consulate of Valentinian, who must have been Valentinian III, reigning 425-455.
Vegetius' dates are not known, nor are the circumstances under which the work was revised. The year 450 is taken as the latest possible time the work could have been written, assuming he did all seven revisions in just a few years. The initial date of the window is established by Vegetius' own statement that he wrote covering the time usque ad tempus divi Gratiani, "up to the time of the divine Gratian."[1] As emperors did not become gods generally until they died, the statement sets the initial possible date (terminus post quem) at 383, the year Gratian died. If the earlier date is preferred, it is unlikely Vegetius did all seven revisions or even one of them. There is no reason to question his general authorship, however.
The work is dedicated to a mysterious emperor, whose identity is unknown but whom Vegetius must have assumed to have been known to his intended readership. It may be that he wrote on behalf of military reform under the patronage of Theodosius I. In that case he would have been alive in the window 378-395, the dates of Theodosius' reign. This article adopts that point of view and assigns an approximate date of 390 to the work, which would not be, then, word for word the same as what Vegetius wrote, accounting for the title variants.
Vegetius based his treatise on descriptions of Roman armies, especially those of the mid to late Republic. As G.R. Watson observes, Vegetius' Epitoma "is the only ancient manual of Roman military institutions to have survived intact." Despite this, Watson is dubious of its value, for he "was neither a historian nor a soldier: his work is a compilation carelessly constructed from material of all ages, a congeries of inconsistencies."[2] These antiquarian sources, according to his own statement, were Cato the Elder, Cornelius Celsus, Frontinus, Paternus and the imperial constitutions of Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian (1.8).
Contents of the treatise
Vegetius' epitome mainly focuses on military organisation and how to react to certain occasions in war. Vegetius explains how one should fortify and organise a camp, how to train troops, how to handle undisciplined troops, how to handle a battle engagement, how to march, formation gauge, and many other useful methods of promoting organisation and valour in the legion. The treatise is carefully laid out in subsections. They are organized into four books:
Book I
The first book, headed Primus liber electionem edocet iuniorum, ex quibus locis uel quales milites probandi sint aut quibus armorum exercitiis imbuendi, explains the selection of recruits, from which places and what kinds (of men) are soldiers to be authorised and with what exercises of arms they are to be indoctrinated. Vegetius also describes in detail the organisation, training and equipment of the army of the early Empire. Portraying the military decadence of the Late Roman Empire, it is a plea for army reform.
Book II
The second book, Secundus liber ueteris militiae continet morem, ad quem pedestris institui possit exercitus, contains traditional military practices with which infantry can be created.
Book III
The third book, Tertius liber omnia artium genera, quae terrestri proelio necessaria uidentur, exponit, "sets forth all types of arts that appear to be necessary for fighting on land." It concludes with a series of military maxims or "general rules of war" ("regulae bellorum generales," 3.26). While some scholars contend that these rules are later interpolations, others consider them to have been included at an early date.[3] Some of these rules were translated into Greek in the Strategikon of Maurice, 8.2, and they became influential in western Europe, from Paul the Deacon to William the Silent, Machiavelli, and Frederick the Great. Some of the maxims may be mentioned here as illustrating the principles of a war for limited political objectives with which he deals:
"All that is advantageous to the enemy is disadvantageous to you, and all that is useful to you, damages the enemy"
"the main and principal point in war is to secure plenty of provisions for oneself and to destroy the enemy by famine. Famine is more terrible than the sword."
"No man is to be employed in the field who is not trained and tested in discipline"
"It is better to beat the enemy through want, surprises, and care for difficult places (i.e., through manoeuvre) than by a battle in the open field"
"Let him who desires peace prepare for war," also paraphrased as si vis pacem, para bellum ("If you want peace, prepare for war")
The book also includes the "seven normal dispositions for battle" ("depugnationum septem...genera," 3.20 and summarized at 3.26.18-24).
Book IV
The fourth book, Quartus liber uniuersas machinas, quibus uel obpugnantur ciuitates uel defenduntur, enumerat; naualis quoque belli praecepta subnectit, enumerates "all the machines with which cities are besieged or defended" (chapters 1-30) and adds also the precepts of naval warfare (chapters 31-46). It contains the best description of siegecraft in the Late Roman Empire. From it, among other things, we learn details of the siege engine called the onager, which until recently was thought to have been common in medieval sieges.
Vegetius is keen to stress the shortcomings of the Roman Army in his lifetime. In order to do this he eulogises the army of the early Roman Empire. In particular he stresses the high standard of the pydars and the excellence of the training and the officer corps. In reality, Vegetius probably describes an ideal rather than the reality. The Army of the early Empire was a formidable fighting force. Some argue that the army was not in its entirety quite as good as Vegetius describes. The reason given is that Vegetius says that recruits should be 5 Roman feet 10 inches tall (Epitoma 1.5), the equivalent of 172cm. The average height of adult male skeletons buried in Italy between 500 BCE and 500 CE was 168cm,[4] so it would probably have been hard to meet Vegetius' height standards. But this is to misunderstand what he says, as in the same section the author is clear that height is one factor and other attributes are of equal value and make up for those who do not fit the height criteria [5]
Transmission and influence
Heavily used in its own time, De re militari became a popular manual on warfare in the Middle Ages, especially between the 9th and 16th centuries, even if some of the information was unsuitable to later times and circumstances. N.P. Milner observes that it was "one of the most popular Latin technical works from Antiquity, rivalling the elder Pliny's Natural History in the number of surviving copies dating from before AD 1300."[6]
The early English historian Bede cites Vegetius in his prose Life of St Cuthbert.[7] The earliest extant manuscript from England to contain Vegetius' text is Cotton Cleopatra D.I (of the 11th, possibly late 10th century).[8]
Vegetius' notes about siegecraft became especially obsolete when the technology advanced and gunpowder weapons such as cannon came into widespread use. Vegetius' suggestion of a soldier's religious oath to God and to the realm might have influenced knightly practices. Still, because of the lack of literacy, as a guide it was probably accessible only to aristocracy, clergy and royalty. Machiavelli very likely read Vegetius and incorporated many of his ideas into his own The Prince.
To the modern day, 226 Latin copies of the book have survived, not including translations to various other European languages. Many of them have a copious amount of personal notes on them, pointing at matters that have interested their contemporary owners.
The first printed editions are ascribed to Utrecht (1473), Cologne (1476), Paris (1478), Rome (in Veteres de re mil. scriptores, 1487), and Pisa (1488). A German translation by Ludwig Hohenwang appeared at Ulm in 1475. It was translated into English, French (by Jean de Meun and others), Italian (by the Florentine judge Bono Giamboni and others), Catalan, Spanish, Czech, and Yiddish before the invention of printing. An early English version (via French) was published by Caxton in 1489.
However, after the first printed editions, Vegetius' position as the premier military authority began to decline, as ancient historians such as Polybius became available. Niccolò Machiavelli attempted to address Vegetius's defects in his L'arte della Guerra (Florence, 1521), with heavy use of Polybius, Frontinus and Livy, but Justus Lipsius' accusation that he confused the institutions of diverse periods of the Roman Empire and G. Stewechius' opinion that the survival of Vegetius' work led to the loss of his named sources were more typical of the late Renaissance.[11] While as late as the 18th century we find so eminent a soldier as Marshal Puysegur basing his own works on this acknowledged model, and the famous Prince de Ligne wrote "C'est un livre d'or". In Milner's words, Vegetius' work suffered "a long period of deepening neglect".[12]
Title
The work is known by a number of variant titles. Here are some titles from among the incunabula, books printed before 1501:[13]
Epithoma (sic) rei militaris (1474)
Epitoma de re militari (1475)
Epitoma institutorum rei militaris (1487)
Epitoma rei militaris (1488)
De re militari (1496)
The common element of all the names are the two cases of res militaris (nominative case): rei militaris (genitive case) and re militari (ablative case). The classical form would have been the ablative. Vegetius uses epitomata, plural of the Greek epitoma, in his other surviving work on doctoring mules.[14]
English translations precede printed books. Manuscript 18A.Xii in the Royal Library, written and ornamented for Richard III of England, is a translation of Vegetius. It ends with a paragraph starting: "Here endeth the boke that clerkes clepethe in Latyne Vegecii de re militari." The paragraph goes on to date the translation to 1408. The translator is identified in Manuscript No. 30 of Magdalen College, Oxford, as John Walton, 1410 translator of Boethius.[15]
Medieval warfare is the warfare of the Middle Ages. Technological, cultural, and social advancements had forced a severe transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery. In terms of fortification, the Middle Ages saw the emergence of the castle in Europe, which then spread to the Holy Land.
Gladius is a Latin word properly referring to the type of sword that was used by ancient Roman foot soldiers starting from the 3rd century BC and until the 3rd century AD. Linguistically, within Latin, the word also came to mean "sword", regardless of the type used.
PubliusVegetius Renatus, known as Vegetius, was a writer of the Later Roman Empire. Nothing is known of his life or station beyond what is contained in his two surviving works: Epitoma rei militaris, and the lesser-known Digesta Artis Mulomedicinae, a guide to veterinary medicine. He identifies himself in the opening of his work Epitoma rei militaris as a Christian.
Perizonius was the name of Jakob Voorbroek, a Dutch classical scholar, who was born at Appingedam in Groningen.
In the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, the Latin word castrum was a military-related term.
Maniple was a tactical unit of the Roman Republican armies, adopted during the Samnite Wars. It was also the name of the military insignia carried by such units.
Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella was a prominent Roman writer on agriculture in the Roman Empire.
Si vis pacem, para bellum is a Latin adage translated as "If you want peace, prepare for war." The phrase is adapted from a statement found in Roman author Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus's tract Dē Rē Mīlitārī, in which the actual phrasing is Igitur quī dēsīderat pācem, præparet bellum. The idea which it conveys also appears in earlier works such as Plato's Nomoi (Laws). The phrase presents the insight that the conditions of peace are often preserved by a readiness to make war when necessary.
An optio, was a position in a centuria (century) of a Roman army similar to that of an executive officer. The main function of an optio was as an optio centuriae, the second-in-command of a century, although there were many other roles an optio could adopt.
Plumbatae or martiobarbuli were lead-weighted darts carried by infantrymen in Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
Sagittarii is the Latin term for archers. The term sagittariorum in the title of an infantry or cavalry unit indicated a specialized archer regiment. Regular auxiliary units of foot and horse archers appeared in the Roman army during the early empire. During the Principate roughly two thirds of all archers were on foot and one third were horse archers. Mercenary foot archers already served with the Roman republican army, but horse archers were only introduced after the Romans came into conflict with Eastern armies that relied heavily on mounted archery in the 1st century BC, most notably the Parthians, whose mounted archers were decisive for Crassus's major defeat in the Battle of Carrhae. Since the time of Augustus however, Romans and Italians were also levied as dedicated archers. In the early 1st century BC horse archers were already in widespread use and even supported Roman campaigns against the Germanic tribes in the Central Europe.
Tirones were new recruits in the armies of the Roman Empire. A tiro could take up to six months before becoming a full miles (infantryman/private).
Bellifortis is the first fully illustrated manual of military technology, written by Konrad Kyeser and dating from the start of the 15th century. It summarises material from classical writers on military technology, like Vegetius' De Re Militari and Frontinus' anecdotal Strategemata, emphasising poliorcetics, or the art of siege warfare, but treating magic as a supplement to the military arts; it is "saturated with astrology", remarked Lynn White, Jr. in a review of the first facsimile edition.
Renatus is a first name of Latin origin which means "born again".
Droungos or drungus is a late Roman and Byzantine term for a battalion-sized military unit, and later for a local command guarding mountain districts. Its commander was a "droungarios" or "drungarius" (δρουγγάριος), anglicized as "Drungary".
Sosylus of Lacedaemon was a Greek historian in the 3rd century BC. He would campaign alongside Hannibal throughout the Second Punic War, teaching him Greek and recording the events of his campaign.
The gens Tarrutenia or Tarutenia was an obscure plebeian family at ancient Rome. Only a few members of this gens are mentioned in history, but others are known from inscriptions. The most illustrious of the Tarrutenii was probably Publius Tarrutenius Paternus, a jurist of the late second century, who was praetorian prefect during the reign of Commodus.
Classiarii referred to all military personnel and personnel assigned to the maneuvering of ships or their construction/maintenance, as part of the Roman navy, an integral part of the Roman army.
The Libellus de vocabulis rei militaris is a Latin military treatise in the form of a collection of excerpts from the first three books of the Epitoma rei militaris of Vegetius. The author is conventionally known as Modestus and most probably worked between the 9th and 12th centuries. His work is known from over 30 manuscripts and was printed six times before 1500. It was one of the canonical "old" military treatises of the 16th and 17th centuries. There is a late translation into Italian.
Barritus (barrītūs) is a battle cry documented in writing since the 1st century among Germanic tribes. The technique of Barritus later became popular among Germanic auxiliary troops in the Roman Army. In the 4th century, Ammianus Marcellinus describes Barritus as typical for Germanic auxiliary troops. Publius Cornelius Tacitus describes the Barritus in his work Germania .
References
Notes
↑ 1.20. An overview of the line of reasoning is given in Barnes.
↑ Geoffrey Kron, "Anthropometry, Physical Anthropology, and the Reconstruction of Ancient Health, Nutrition, and Living Standards" Historia 54 (2005) pp. 68-83
Tony Robinson reading to Professor Mick Aston an excerpt of N.P. Milner's Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science during a 1994 episode of the British archaeology television programme Time Team. Robinson had become enamoured with the book after being introduced to it by the show's historian Robin Bush
Reeve, Michael D. (ed.). Epitoma rei militaris. Oxford Medieval Texts. Oxford, 2004. ISBN0-19-926464-3
Lang, C. (ed.). Vegetius. Epitoma Rei Militaris. Stuttgart, 1872. 2nd ed: Leipzig, 1885.
Vegetius Renatus, Flavius (1767). "The Military Institutions of the Romans (De re militari)". Digital Attic 2.0. Translated by John Clarke. Brevik, Mads. Archived from the original on 2020-04-21. Retrieved 2013-04-28. Books I-III only. The unknown editor altered the translation "to conform to modern usage" and abbreviated the text. Access is by subtitle. Search only within subsection.
Milner, N.P. (tr.). Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science. Liverpool, 1993. ISBN0-85323-228-8. Second revised edition 2011.
Bachrach, Bernard S. "A 'Lying Legacy' Revisited. The Abels-Morillo Defense of Discontinuity." Journal of Medieval Military History 5 (2007). 153 ff.
Barnes, T.D. (Autumn 1979). "The Date of Vegetius". Phoenix. 33 (3). Phoenix, Vol. 33, No. 3: 254–257. doi:10.2307/1087436. JSTOR1087436. First page no charge.
Ebert, Friedrich Adolf (1830). Allgemeines Bibliographisches Lexikon: Zweiter Band M-Z. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus. pp.1013–1014. Downloadable Google Books.
Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund (1892). Schwabe, Ludwig (ed.). History of Roman Literature: V. II The Imperial Period. Warr, Charles Winter (trans.). London: G. Bell & Sons. Article 432 pages 400–404. Translated from the German 5th edition, revised and enlarged. Downloadable from Google Books.
Further reading
Christopher Allmand, The 'De Re Militari' of Vegetius. The Reception, Transmission and Legacy of a Roman Text in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: UP, 2011. ISBN978-1-107-00027-8. (A preview can be seen in Google Books:
Charles, Michael B. Vegetius in Context. Establishing the Date of the Epitoma Rei Militaris. Historia, Einzelschriften 194. Stuttgart, 2007.
Rogers, Clifford J. (2003). "The Vegetian 'Science of Warfare' in the Middle Ages". Journal of Medieval Military History. 1: 1–19.
Jahns, Max. Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften. Vol. 2. pp.109–125.
Richardot, Phillipe. Végèce et la culture militaire au Moyen Âge (Ve-XVe síecles). Paris, 1998.
Shrader, Charles R. "The Influence of Vegetius' De re militari." Military Affairs 45.4 (1981).
Annotated 1767 edition • I • II • III • IV • V • with French translation: I • II • III • IV • V (In this edition book IV has been split because the editor thought the chapter Praecepta belli naualis was intended as a prologue, starting a new book.)
English translation:
Clarke, Lieutenant John. "The Military Institutions of the Romans". Text written in 390 A.D. British translation published in 1767. Copyright Expired. Digital Attic. Doesn't include book IV.
Illustrations from Vier Bücher der Ritterschafft, a 1529 German-language edition published by Heinrich Stayner with woodcuts variously depicting underwater diving suits, siege equipment, cannons, and air mattresses for the comfort of soldiers in the field. All 121 full-page woodcuts and 2 half-page woodcuts freely available for download in a variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections.
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