Peacebuilding

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Human peace sign - symbolically represents an holistic approach to peacebuilding. Human Peace Sign (2008).jpg
Human peace sign - symbolically represents an holistic approach to peacebuilding.

Peacebuilding is an activity that aims to resolve injustice in nonviolent ways and to transform the cultural and structural conditions that generate deadly or destructive conflict. It revolves around developing constructive personal, group, and political relationships across ethnic, religious, class, national, and racial boundaries. The process includes violence prevention; conflict management, resolution, or transformation; and post-conflict reconciliation or trauma healing before, during, and after any given case of violence. [1] [2] [3]

Contents

As such, peacebuilding is a multidisciplinary cross-sector technique or method that becomes strategic when it works over the long run and at all levels of society to establish and sustain relationships among people locally and globally and thus engenders sustainable peace. [1] Strategic peacebuilding activities address the root or potential causes of violence, create a societal expectation for peaceful conflict resolution, and stabilize society politically and socioeconomically.

The methods included in peacebuilding vary depending on the situation and the agent of peacebuilding. Successful peacebuilding activities create an environment supportive of self-sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents; prevent conflict from restarting; integrate civil society; create rule of law mechanisms; and address underlying structural and societal issues. Researchers and practitioners also increasingly find that peacebuilding is most effective and durable when it relies upon local conceptions of peace and the underlying dynamics that foster or enable conflict. [4]

Defining peacebuilding

The definition of peacebuilding varies depending on the actor, with some definitions specifying what activities fall within the scope of peacebuilding or restricting peacebuilding to post-conflict interventions. Even if peacebuilding has remained a largely amorphous concept without clear guidelines or goals, [5] common to all definitions is the agreement that improving human security is the central task of peacebuilding. In this sense, peacebuilding includes a wide range of efforts by diverse actors in government and civil society at the community, national, and international levels to address the root causes of violence and ensure civilians have freedom from fear (negative peace), freedom from want (positive peace) and freedom from humiliation before, during, and after violent conflict.

Although many of peacebuilding's aims overlap with those of peacemaking, peacekeeping and conflict resolution, it is a distinct idea. Peacemaking involves stopping an ongoing conflict, whereas peacebuilding happens before a conflict starts or once it ends. Peacekeeping prevents the resumption of fighting following a conflict; it does not address the underlying causes of violence or work to create societal change, as peacebuilding does. Peacekeeping also differs from peacebuilding in that it only occurs after conflict ends, not before it begins. Conflict resolution does not include some components of peacebuilding, such as state building and socioeconomic development.

While some use the term to refer to only post-conflict or post-war contexts, most use the term more broadly to refer to any stage of conflict. Before conflict becomes violent, preventive peacebuilding efforts, such as diplomatic, economic development, social, educational, health, legal and security sector reform programs, address potential sources of instability and violence. This is also termed conflict prevention. Peacebuilding efforts aim to manage, mitigate, resolve and transform central aspects of the conflict through official diplomacy; as well as through civil society peace processes and informal dialogue, negotiation, and mediation. Peacebuilding addresses economic, social and political root causes of violence and fosters reconciliation to prevent the return of structural and direct violence. Peacebuilding efforts aim to change beliefs, attitudes and behaviors to transform the short and long term dynamics between individuals and groups toward a more stable, peaceful coexistence. Peacebuilding is an approach to an entire set of interrelated efforts that support peace.

Peace-building is a term of more recent origin that, as used in the report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (2000), defines "activities undertaken on the far side of conflict to reassemble the foundations of peace and provide the tools for building on those foundations something that is more than just the absence of war. " [6]

In 2007, the UN Secretary-General's Policy Committee defined peacebuilding as follows: "Peacebuilding involves a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundations for sustainable peace and sustainable development. Peacebuilding strategies must be coherent and tailored to specific needs of the country concerned, based on national ownership, and should comprise a carefully prioritized, sequenced, and therefore relatively narrow set of activities aimed at achieving the above objectives." [7]

Peacebuilding can apply knowledge and theories from peace and conflict studies. [8]

History of peacebuilding

As World War II ended in the mid-1940s, international initiatives such as the creation of the Bretton Woods institutions and The Marshall Plan consisted of long-term postconflict intervention programs in Europe with which the United States and its allies aimed to rebuild the continent following the destruction of World War II. [9] The focus of these initiatives revolved around a narrative of peacekeeping and peacemaking.

Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung coined the term "peacebuilding" in 1975, arguing that "peace has a structure different from, perhaps over and above, peacekeeping and ad hoc peacemaking... The mechanisms that peace is based on should be built into the structure and be present as a reservoir for the system itself to draw up. ... More specifically, structures must be found that remove causes of wars and offer alternatives to war in situations where wars might occur." [10] Galtung's work emphasized a bottom-up approach that decentralized social and economic structures, amounting to a call for a societal shift from structures of coercion and violence to a culture of peace. [7]

Then, as the Cold War and the various phenomena of its fizzling came to a close (e.g. civil wars between Third World countries, Reagonomics, "Bringing the State Back In"), American sociologist John Paul Lederach further refined the concept of peacebuilding through several 1990s publications that focus on engaging grassroots, local, NGO, international and other actors to create a sustainable peace process, especially with respect to cases of intractable deadly conflict where he was actively mediating between warring parties. [11] [12] [13] From a political-institutional perspective, he does not advocate the same degree of structural change as Galtung. [14] However, Lederach's influence in the conceptual evolution of peacebuilding still reflects Galtung's original vision for "positive peace" by detailing, categorizing, & expanding upon the sociocultural processes through which we address both direct and structural elements of violent conflict. [15]

Peacebuilding has since expanded to include many different dimensions, such as disarmament, demobilization and reintegration and rebuilding governmental, economic and civil society institutions. [7] The concept was popularized in the international community through UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali's 1992 report An Agenda for Peace. The report defined post-conflict peacebuilding as an "action to identify and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflict". [16] At the 2005 World Summit, the United Nations began creating a peacebuilding architecture based on Kofi Annan's proposals. [17] The proposal called for three organizations: the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was founded in 2005; the UN Peacebuilding Fund, founded in 2006; and the UN Peacebuilding Support Office, which was created in 2005. These three organizations enable the Secretary-General to coordinate the UN's peacebuilding efforts. [18] National governments' interest in the topic has also increased due to fears that failed states serve as breeding grounds for conflict and extremism and thus threaten international security. Some states have begun to view peacebuilding as a way to demonstrate their relevance. [19] However, peacebuilding activities continue to account for small percentages of states' budgets. [20]

Categorizing approaches to peacebuilding

In a very broad sense, there are three primary approaches to peacebuilding, which each correspond to three primary types of peace: (1) negative peace vs. (2) positive peace (Galtung) vs. (3) justpeace (Lederach, sometimes spelled "just peace"). In turn, these three types of peace correspond respectively to three primary types of violence: (1) direct violence vs. (2) structural violence vs. (3) cultural violence .

Negative peace: direct violence

Negative peace refers to the absence of direct, or "hot" violence, which refers to acts that impose immediate harm on a given subject or group. In this sense, negative peacebuilding (aimed at negative peace) intentionally focuses on addressing the direct factors driving harmful conflict. When applying the term "peacebuilding" to this work, there is an explicit attempt by those designing and planning a peacebuilding effort to reduce direct violence. [21] [22]

Positive peace: structural violence

Positive peace refers to the absence of both direct violence as well as structural violence. Structural violence refers to the ways that systems & institutions in society cause, reinforce, or perpetuate direct violence. In this sense, positive peacebuilding (aimed at positive peace) intentionally focuses on address the indirect factors driving or mitigating harmful conflict, with an emphasis on engaging institutions, policies, and political-economic conditions as they relate to exploitation and repression. [21] [22]

Justpeace: cultural violence

Justpeace (or "just peace") refers to the absence of all three types of violence enumerated above: direct, structural, & cultural. Cultural violence refers to aspects of culture that can be used to justify or legitimize direct or structural violence—the ways in which direct or structural violence look or feel "right" according to the moral fabric of society. [23] In this sense, just peacebuilding (aimed at justpeace) intentionally combines the methods of "positive peacebuilding" (as described above) with a special focus on building and transforming sustainable relationships among conflicting sectors & cultures in such a way that promotes more alignment between each culture's mores (standards of "right" behavior or conditions) and the extent to which those mores are built/equipped to prevent, resolve, and heal patterns of direct and structural violence.

When Lederach first proposed the term in the late 1990s, he wrote:

Inspired by colleagues from the Justapaz Centre in Bogota, Colombia, I propose that by the year 2050 the word justpeace be accepted in everyday common language and appear as an entry in the Webster's Dictionary. It will read:

Justpeace \ jest pés \ n, vi, (justpeace-building) 1: an adaptive process-structure of human relationships characterized by high justice and low violence 2: an infrastructure of organization or governance that responds to human conflict through nonviolent means as first and last resorts 3: a view of systems as responsive to the permanency and interdependence of relationships and change. [15]

Institutionalising peacebuilding

Following periods of protracted violence, peacebuilding often takes shape in the form of constitutional agreements, laying out a path for co-operation and tolerance between former warring factions. A common method that has been applied in a variety of states is consociationalism. Initially set forth by political scientist Arend Lijphart, consociationalism calls for a power-sharing form of democracy. Identified by four aspects: grand coalition, mutual veto, proportionality and segmental autonomy; it aims to generate peace across societies that have been torn apart by their internal divisions. [24] Ultimately, consociationalism aims to create a stable society that is able to outlast and overcome differences that may remerge. Examples of consociational agreements can be seen in Northern Ireland, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Lebanon.

In an effort to de-emphasise the importance of ethnicity, critics of consociationalism such as Brian Barry, Donald L. Horowitz, and to a certain extent, Roland Paris, have developed their own brands of constitutional peacebuilding that rely on the existence of a moderate society.

Centripetalism as advocated by Horowitz, encourages political parties of divided societies to adopt a moderate campaign platform. Through the alternative vote and a distributive requirement, centripetalism aims to create a society that votes across ethnic or religious lines, allowing civic issues to take precedence. [25]

Components of peacebuilding

The activities included in peacebuilding vary depending on the situation and the agent of peacebuilding. Successful peacebuilding activities create an environment supportive of self-sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents; prevent conflict from restarting; integrate civil society; create rule of law mechanisms; and address underlying structural and societal issues. To accomplish these goals, peacebuilding must address functional structures, emotional conditions and social psychology, social stability, rule of law and ethics, and cultural sensitivities. [26]

Preconflict peacebuilding interventions aim to prevent the start of violent conflict. [27] These strategies involve a variety of actors and sectors in order to transform the conflict. [28] Even though the definition of peacebuilding includes preconflict interventions, in practice most peacebuilding interventions are postconflict. [29] However, many peacebuilding scholars advocate an increased focus on preconflict peacebuilding in the future. [27] [28]

There are many different approaches to categorization of forms of peacebuilding among the peacebuilding field's many scholars.

Barnett et al. divide postconflict peacebuilding into three dimensions: stabilizing the post-conflict zone, restoring state institutions, and dealing with social and economic issues. Activities within the first dimension reinforce state stability post-conflict and discourage former combatants from returning to war (disarmament, demobilization and reintegration, or DDR). Second dimension activities build state capacity to provide basic public goods and increase state legitimacy. Programs in the third dimension build a post-conflict society's ability to manage conflicts peacefully and promote socioeconomic development. [30]

1st Dimension2nd Dimension3rd Dimension
  • Taking away weapons
  • Re-integrating former combatants into civilian society
  • Rebuilding basic facilities, transportation and communication networks, utilities
  • Developing rule of law systems and public administration
  • Building educational and health infrastructure
  • Providing technical and capacity-building assistance for institutions
  • Creating legitimate (democratic, accountable) state institutions

A mixture of locally and internationally focused components is key to building a long-term sustainable peace. [26] [31] Mac Ginty says that while different "indigenous" communities utilize different conflict resolution techniques, most of them share the common characteristics described in the table below. Since indigenous peacebuilding practices arise from local communities, they are tailored to local context and culture in a way that generalized international peacebuilding approaches are not. [32]

Local, customary and traditionalInternational
  • Respected local figures
  • Public dimension
  • Storytelling and airing of grievances
  • Emphasis on relationships
  • Reliance on local resources
  • Top-down: engages with national elites, not locals
  • Exclusive: deals are made behind closed doors
  • Technocratic/ahistorical basis: emphasis on 'striking a deal', 'moving on'
  • Modeled on corporate culture: reaching a deal, meeting deadlines prioritzed over relations
  • Relies on external personnel, ideas and material resources

Theory of peacebuilding

The Ripeness theory by I. William Zartman introduces the concept of a "ripe moment" for the commencement of peace negotiations in a conflict, a necessary (but not sufficient) condition that must be fulfilled before actors in a conflict will be willing to faithfully engage in peace negotiations: [33] The ripe moment requires:

Without these features, Zartman argues that belligerents will lack the necessary motivations to pursue peace. Therefore, the sides in a conflict will either not engage in peace negotiation, or any peace will be short-lived. Approached in game-theoretical terms, Zartman argues that the presence of an mutually hurting stalemate and a means of escaping the stalemate transform conflicts from a prisoner's dilemma to a chicken game. The durability of ceasefires can depend on the continued existence of a mutually enticing opportunity (MEO) and resolution of substantive grievances. [35] Changes in the perceived cost-benefit analysis can result in resolution of intractable or decade-long conflicts, such as The Troubles. [36] The Ripeness theory has been criticized for limited predictivity when time and conditions are ripe for peace. [37]

Bottom-up theories of peace processes such as Interplay theory consider additional dimensions, such as the cost-benefit analysis for actual combatants. [37]

Peacebuilding and cultural heritage

Karl von Habsburg, on a Blue Shield International fact-finding mission in Libya during the war in 2011 to protect cultural assets Blue Shield Fact Finding Mission Libyen.jpg
Karl von Habsburg, on a Blue Shield International fact-finding mission in Libya during the war in 2011 to protect cultural assets

In today's world, peacebuilding also means maintaining and protecting the economic and cultural foundations of a community and the population. The protection of culture and cultural assets is therefore becoming increasingly important nationally and internationally. United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage and therefore with peacebuilding. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping. [38] [39] [40] [41]

In international law, the UN and UNESCO try to establish and enforce rules. It is not a question of protecting a person's property, but of preserving the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, founding president of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target is the opponent's identity, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to address the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, a region or a municipality. [42] [43] [44]

Major organizations

International organizations

The United Nations participates in many aspects of peacebuilding, both through the peacebuilding architecture established in 2005–2006 and through other agencies.

The World Bank and International Monetary Fund focus on the economic and financial aspects of peacebuilding. The World Bank assists in post-conflict reconstruction and recovery by helping rebuild society's socioeconomic framework. The International Monetary Fund deals with post-conflict recovery and peacebuilding by acting to restore assets and production levels. [47]

The EU's European Commission describes its peacebuilding activities as conflict prevention and management, and rehabilitation and reconstruction. Conflict prevention and management entails stopping the imminent outbreak of violence and encouraging a broad peace process. Rehabilitation and reconstruction deals with rebuilding the local economy and institutional capacity. [49] The European Commission Conflict Prevention and Peace building 2001–2010 was subjected to a major external evaluation conducted by Aide a la Decisions Economique (ADE) with the European Centre for Development Policy Management which was presented in 2011. [50] The European External Action Service created in 2010 also has a specific Division of Conflict Prevention, Peacebuilding and Mediation.

Governmental organizations

France

AFD logo AFD logo.svg
AFD logo
  • French Ministry of Defence: operations include peacekeeping, political and constitutional processes, democratization, administrative state capacity, technical assistance for public finance and tax policy, and support for independent media
  • French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs: supports peace consolidation, including monitoring compliance with arms embargoes, deployment of peacekeeping troops, DDR, and deployment of police and gendarmerie in support of the rule of law
  • French Development Agency: focuses on crisis prevention through humanitarian action and development

Germany

  • German Federal Foreign Office: assists with conflict resolution and postconflict peacebuilding, including the establishment of stable state structures (rule of law, democracy, human rights, and security) and the creation of the potential for peace within civil society, the media, cultural affairs and education
  • German Federal Ministry of Defence: deals with the destruction of a country's infrastructure resulting from intrastate conflict, security forces reform, demobilization of combatants, rebuilding the justice system and government structures and preparations for elections
  • German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development: addresses economic, social, ecological, and political conditions to help eliminate the structural causes of conflict and promote peaceful conflict management; issues addressed include poverty reduction, pro-poor sustainable economic growth, good governance and democracy

Japan

  • Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA): supports peacebuilding. [51] In response to Minister Taro Aso's statement in his speech in 2007, the Ministry is conducting the project (平和構築人材育成事業) to train civilian specialists from Japan and other countries who can work in the field of peacebuilding. [52]

Switzerland

United Kingdom

  • UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office: performs a range of reconstruction activities required in the immediate aftermath of conflict
  • UK Ministry of Defence: deals with long-term activities addressing the underlying causes of conflict and the needs of the people
  • UK Department for International Development: works on conflict prevention (short-term activities to prevent the outbreak or recurrence of violent conflict) and peacebuilding (medium- and long-term actions to address the factors underlying violent conflict), including DDR programs; building the public institutions that provide security, transitional justice and reconciliation; and providing basic social services

United States

USAID logo Seal of the United States Agency for International Development.svg
USAID logo
  • United States Department of State: aids postconflict states in establishing the basis for a lasting peace, good governance and sustainable development
  • United States Department of Defense: assists with reconstruction, including humanitarian assistance, public health, infrastructure, economic development, rule of law, civil administration and media; and stabilization, including security forces, communication skills, humanitarian capabilities and area expertise
  • United States Agency for International Development: performs immediate interventions to build momentum in support of the peace process including supporting peace negotiations; building citizen security; promoting reconciliation; and expanding democratic political processes [54]
  • United States Institute of Peace:

Nongovernmental organizations

Research and academic institutes

United States Institute of Peace Headquarters in Washington D.C. United States Institute of Peace.jpg
United States Institute of Peace Headquarters in Washington D.C.

Role of women

Nadia Murad was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "efforts to end the use of sexual violence as a weapon of war and armed conflict. Nadia Murad in Washington - 2018 (42733243785) (cropped).jpg
Nadia Murad was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "efforts to end the use of sexual violence as a weapon of war and armed conflict.

Women have traditionally played a limited role in peacebuilding processes even though they often bear the responsibility for providing for their families' basic needs in the aftermath of violent conflict. They are especially likely to be unrepresented or underrepresented in negotiations, political decision-making, upper-level policymaking and senior judicial positions. Many societies' patriarchal cultures prevent them from recognizing the role women can play in peacebuilding. [60] However, many peacebuilding academics and the United Nations have recognized that women play a vital role in securing the three pillars of sustainable peace: economic recovery and reconciliation, social cohesion and development and political legitimacy, security and governance. [61] [62]

In October 2000, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (S/RES/1325) on women, peace, and security was adopted unanimously by the UN Security Council, after recalling resolutions 1261 (1999), 1265 (1999), 1296 (2000), and 1314 (2000). The resolution acknowledged the disproportionate and unique impact of armed conflict on women and girls. It calls for the adoption of a gender perspective to consider the special needs of women and girls during conflict, repatriation and resettlement, rehabilitation, reintegration, and post-conflict reconstruction. [63]

In 2010, at the request of the Security Council, the Secretary-General issued an updated report on women's participation in peacebuilding. The report outlines the challenges women continue to face in participating in recovery and peacebuilding process and the negative impact this exclusion has on them and societies more broadly. To respond to these challenges, it advocates a comprehensive 7-point action plan covering the seven commitment areas: mediation; post-conflict planning; financing; civilian capacity; post-conflict governance; rule of law; and economic recovery. The action plan aims to facilitate progress on the women, peace and security agenda. The monitoring and implementation of this action plan is now being led jointly by the Peacebuilding Support Office and UN Women. [64] In April 2011, the two organizations convened a workshop to ensure that women are included in future post-disaster and post-conflict planning documents. In the same year, the PBF selected seven gender-sensitive peacebuilding projects to receive $5 million in funding. [61]

Porter discusses the growing role of female leadership in countries prone to war and its impact on peacebuilding. When the book was written, seven countries prone to violent conflict had female heads of state. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia and Michelle Bachelet of Chile were the first female heads of state from their respective countries and President Johnson-Sirleaf was the first female head of state in Africa. Both women utilized their gender to harness "the power of maternal symbolism - the hope that a woman could best close wounds left on their societies by war and dictatorship." [65]

Examples in early 21st century

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  UN PBC and PBF projects as of 2012
  UN PBF projects as of 2012

The UN Peacebuilding Commission works in Burundi, Central African Republic, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia and Sierra Leone [66] and the UN Peacebuilding Fund funds projects in Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Guatemala, Haiti, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Liberia, Nepal, Niger, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, South Sudan, Timor-Leste and Uganda. [67] Other UN organizations are working in Haiti (MINUSTAH), [68] Lebanon, [69] Afghanistan, Kosovo and Iraq.

The World Bank's International Development Association maintains the Trust Fund for East Timor in Timor-Leste. The TFET has assisted reconstruction, community empowerment and local governance in the country. [70]

After it had carried out the War in Afghanistan and the War in Iraq, the United States followed its attacks on the two countries by investing $104 billion in reconstruction and relief efforts. The Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund alone received $21 billion during FY2003 and FY2004. [71] The money came from the United States Department of State, the United States Agency for International Development and the United States Department of Defense and included funding for security, health, education, social welfare, governance, economic growth and humanitarian issues. [72]

Civil society organisations contribute to peacebuilding, as is the case in Kenya, according to the magazine D+C Development and Cooperation. After the election riots in Kenya in 2008, civil society organisations started programmes to avoid similar disasters in the future, such as the Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission (TJRC) and peace meetings organised by the church. They supported the National Cohesion and Integration Commission.

Results

In 2010, the UNPBC conducted a review of its work with the first four countries on its agenda. [73] An independent review by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting also highlighted some of the PBC's early successes and challenges. [74]

One comprehensive study finds that UN peacebuilding missions significantly increase the likelihood of democratization. [75]

Criticisms

Jennifer Hazen contends there are two major debates relating to peacebuilding; the first centres on the role of the liberal democratic model in designing peacebuilding activities and measuring outcomes and the other one questions the role of third-party actors in peacebuliding. [5]

Regarding the debate about the role of the liberal democratic model in peacebuilding, one side contends that liberal democracy is a viable end goal for peacebuilding activities in itself but that the activities implemented to achieve it need to be revised; a rushed transition to democratic elections and market economy can undermine stability and elections held or economic legislation enacted are an inappropriate yardstick for success. Institutional change is necessary and transitions need to be incremental.

Another side contends that liberal democracy might be an insufficient or even inappropriate goal for peacebuilding efforts and that the focus must be on a social transformation to develop non-violent mechanisms of conflict resolution regardless of their form. [5]

With regards to the role of third-party actors, David Chandler contends that external support creates dependency and undermines local and domestic politics, thus undermining autonomy and the capacity for self-governance and leaving governments weak and dependent on foreign assistance once the third-party actors depart. [76] Since the logic of peacebuilding relies on building and strengthening institutions to alter societal beliefs and behaviour, success relies on the populations' endorsement of these institutions. Any third party attempt at institution building without genuine domestic support will result in hollow institutions - this can lead to a situation in which democratic institutions are established before domestic politics have developed in a liberal, democratic fashion, and an unstable polity.

Séverine Autesserre offers a different approach, which focuses on the role of everyday practices in peacebuilding. [77] She argue that the foreign peace builders' everyday practices, habits, and narratives strongly influence peacebuilding effectiveness. Autesserre stresses that international peacebuilders do not fully understand the conflicts they are trying to resolve because they rarely include local leaders in decision making, do not speak the local languages, and do not stay posted long enough to oversee effective change. This leaves decision makers out of touch with the key players in the peacebuilding process.

Jeremy Weinstein challenges the assumption that weak and failing states cannot rebuild themselves. He contends that through the process of autonomous recovery, international peacekeeping missions can be unnecessary for recovery because they assume that conflicts cannot be resolved by the country internally. [78] He describes autonomous recovery as a "process through which countries achieve a lasting peace, a systematic reduction in violence, and postwar political and economic development in the absence of international intervention". [78] Through peace and institutions generated by allowing war to run its natural course, autonomous recovery can be viewed as a success. He claims that war leads to peace by allowing the naturally stronger belligerent gain power, rather than a brokered peace deal that leaves two sides still capable of fighting. Secondly he claims that war provides a competition among providers of public goods until one can control a monopoly. He says that war can create an incentive to create institutions at all levels in order to consolidate power and extract resources from the citizens while also giving some power to the citizens depending upon how much the institutions rely on them for tax revenues.

Virginia Fortna of Columbia University, however, holds that peacekeeping interventions actually do substantively matter following the end of a civil war. [79] She claims that selection bias, where opponents point only to failed peacekeeping interventions and do not compare these missions to those situations where interventions do not occur, is partly to blame for criticisms. Fortna says that peacekeeping missions rarely go into easily resolvable situations while they are sent into tougher, more risky post war situations where missions are more likely to fail, and peace agreements are unlikely to be committed to. When all factors of a certain peacekeeping case study are properly considered, Fortna shows that peacekeeping missions do in fact help increase the chances of sustained peace after a civil war.

The case of Timor-Leste can be seen as appeasement without addressing underlying conflict grievances. [80]

Implementation

Michael N. Barnett et al. criticize peacebuilding organizations for undertaking supply-driven rather than demand-driven peacebuilding; they provide the peacebuilding services in which their organization specializes, not necessarily those that the recipient most needs. [81] In addition, he argues that many of their actions are based on organizations precedent rather than empirical analysis of which interventions are and are not effective. [20] More recently, Ben Hillman has criticized international donor efforts to strengthen local governments in the wake of conflict. He argues that international donors typically do not have the knowledge, skills or resources to bring meaningful change to the way post-conflict societies are governed. [82] [83]

Perpetuation of cultural hegemony

Many academics argue that peacebuilding is a manifestation of liberal internationalism and therefore imposes Western values and practices onto other cultures. Mac Ginty states that although peacebuilding does not project all aspects of Western culture on to the recipient states, it does transmit some of them, including concepts like neoliberalism that the West requires recipients of aid to follow more closely than most Western countries do. [84] Barnett also comments that the promotion of liberalization and democratization may undermine the peacebuilding process if security and stable institutions are not pursued concurrently. [85] Richmond has shown how 'liberal peacebuilding' represents a political encounter that may produce a post-liberal form of peace. Local and international actors, norms, institutions and interests engage with each other in various different contexts, according to their respective power relations and their different conceptions of legitimate authority structures. [86] Knowles and Matisek adapt to the inherent problem of peacebuilding by arguing for a better vision of security force assistance (SFA) - donor states/actors trying to build effective host-nation security forces in a weak state - where they shift the focus from military effectiveness (a typical western hegemonic approach) to one that empowers local informal security actors to take ownership of their security and to be a part of the strategic vision of the state. Such an approach attempts to bypass the inherent flaws of SFA imposing a Western security architecture on a state that does not have the institutions, resources, or civil-military relations to support this 'alien' form of security sector reform (SSR). [87]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 "What is Strategic Peacebuilding?". Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame. 2018. Retrieved 2018-12-25.
  2. ↑ Rapoport, A. (1989). The origins of violence: Approaches to the study of conflict. New York, NY: Paragon House.
  3. ↑ Rapoport, A. (1992). Peace: An idea whose time has come. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
  4. ↑ Coning, C (2013). "Understanding Peacebuilding as Essentially Local". Stability: International Journal of Security and Development. 2 (1): 6. doi: 10.5334/sta.as . hdl: 11250/195579 .
  5. 1 2 3 Hazen, Jennifer M. (2007). "Can Peacekeepers Be Peacebuilders?". International Peacekeeping. 14 (3): 323–338. doi:10.1080/13533310701422901. S2CID   144697583.
  6. ↑ Lakhdar, Brahimi. (2000). Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/events/pastevents/brahimi_report.shtml
  7. 1 2 3 Peacebuilding & The United Nations, United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office, United Nations. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  8. ↑ Dugan, 1989: 74
  9. ↑ Sandole 92, 101
  10. ↑ "Peace Building Initiative - History". www.peacebuildinginitiative.org. Retrieved 2018-12-25.
  11. ↑ Lederach, John Paul (1996). Enredos, pleitos y problemas: una guía práctica para ayudar a resolver conflictos. Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia: Ediciones CLARA-SEMILLA. ISBN   978-8489389069. OCLC   35626561.
  12. ↑ Lederach, John Paul (1995). Preparing for peace: conflict transformation across cultures. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. ISBN   978-0815626565. OCLC   31815462.
  13. ↑ Lederach, John Paul (1997). Building peace: sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. Washington, D.C. ISBN   978-1878379733. OCLC   37606240.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. ↑ Keating XXXIV
  15. 1 2 Lederach, John Paul. "Justpeace". homepage.univie.ac.at. Archived from the original on 2017-02-15. Retrieved 2018-12-25.
  16. ↑ "An Agenda for Peace". UN Secretary-General. 31 Jan 1992. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
  17. ↑ Barnett 36
  18. 1 2 3 "About PSBO". United Nations . Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  19. ↑ Barnett 43
  20. 1 2 Barnett 53
  21. 1 2 "Negative versus Positive Peace - Irénées". www.irenees.net. Retrieved 2018-12-25.
  22. 1 2 Galtung, Johan (2011), "Peace, Positive and Negative", The Encyclopedia of Peace Psychology, American Cancer Society, doi:10.1002/9780470672532.wbepp189, ISBN   9780470672532
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  24. ↑ Lijphart, Arend (2004). "Constitutional design for divided societies" (PDF). Journal of Democracy . 15 (2): 96–109 [97]. doi:10.1353/jod.2004.0029. S2CID   19665603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-28. Retrieved 2020-01-22.
  25. ↑ McCulloch, Allison (June 2013). "Does Moderation Pay? Centripetalism in Deeply Divided Societies". Ethnopolitics. 12 (2): 111–132. doi:10.1080/17449057.2012.658002. ISSN   1744-9057. S2CID   144570242.
  26. 1 2 Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). "Approaches- Peacebuilding". Conflict Management Toolkit. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  27. 1 2 Keating XXXVII
  28. 1 2 Sandole 13–14
  29. ↑ Sandole 12
  30. ↑ Barnett et al. 49–50
  31. ↑ Mac Ginty 212
  32. ↑ Mac Ginty, R (2012). "Against Stabilization". Stability: International Journal of Security and Development. 1 (1): 20–30. doi: 10.5334/sta.ab .
  33. ↑ Zartman, I. William (2001). "The Timing of Peace Initiatives: Hurting Stalemates and Ripe Moments" (PDF).
  34. ↑ Reed, Charles & Ryall, David (eds.) (2007). The Price of Peace: Just War in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press.
  35. ↑ Zartman, I. William (2019). "Mutually Enticing Opportunities and Durable Settlements". Pioneers in Arts, Humanities, Science, Engineering, Practice. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 173–194. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-06079-4_10. ISBN   978-3-030-06078-7. ISSN   2509-5579.
  36. ↑ O'Kane, Eamonn (2013). "The Perpetual Peace Process? Examining Northern Ireland's Never-ending, but Fundamentally Altering Peace Process". Irish Political Studies. 28 (4). Informa UK Limited: 515–535. doi:10.1080/07907184.2012.716422. ISSN   0790-7184.
  37. 1 2 Tonge, Jonathan; Shirlow, Peter; McAuley, James (2011). "So Why Did the Guns Fall Silent? How Interplay, not Stalemate, Explains the Northern Ireland Peace Process". Irish Political Studies. 26 (1). Informa UK Limited: 1–18. doi:10.1080/07907184.2011.531103. ISSN   0790-7184.
  38. ↑ A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier
  39. ↑ Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict - United Nations Peacekeeping, 12 April 2019.
  40. ↑ "Austrian Armed Forces Mission in Lebanon" (in German). 28 April 2019.
  41. ↑ UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly. UNESCO, 13 September 2017.
  42. ↑ "Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon" (in German). 28 April 2019.
  43. ↑ Corine Wegener, Marjan Otter: Cultural Property at War: Protecting Heritage during Armed Conflict. In: The Getty Conservation Institute, Newsletter 23.1, Spring 2008.
  44. ↑ Eden Stiffman: Cultural Preservation in Disasters, War Zones. Presents Big Challenges. In: The Chronicle Of Philanthropy, 11 May 2015.
  45. ↑ "Mandate of the Peacebuilding Commission". United Nations . Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  46. ↑ "How we fund". United Nations . Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  47. 1 2 Barnett et al. 38
  48. ↑ "Democracy and Global Citizenship". UNESCO. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  49. ↑ Barnett et al. 43
  50. ↑ ADE, Thematic Evaluation of European Commission Support to Conflict Prevention and Peace-building, Evaluation for the Evaluation Unit of DEVCO, October 2011, http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/how/evaluation/evaluation_reports/2011/1291_docs_en.htm<>
  51. ↑ "Peacebuilding Assistance: Japan's Action". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  52. ↑ "平和構築・開発におけるグローバル人材育成事業 平和構築・開発の担い手をつくります". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (in Japanese). Retrieved 2022-07-31.
  53. ↑ See the 2012 report of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA)
  54. ↑ Barnett et al. 38–40
  55. ↑ Edward Luttwak "Franco-German Reconciliation: The overlooked role of the Moral Re-Armament movement", in Douglas Johnston and Cynthia Sampson (eds.), Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp37–63.
  56. ↑ See the 2012 report of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA), page 20
  57. ↑ Peacemaker Camp 2007, website
  58. ↑ Gibson, Caitlin (1 August 2011). "Teens affected by terrorism unite to promote peace". The Washington Post .
  59. ↑ "The Nobel Peace Prize 2018". NobelPrize.org. Oct 5, 2018. Retrieved Apr 12, 2024.
  60. ↑ Porter 190
  61. 1 2 "Policy Issues". United Nations . Retrieved 15 April 2012.
  62. ↑ Porter 184
  63. ↑ "Security Council, unanimously adopting resolution 1325 (2000), calls for broad participation of women in peace-building post-conflict reconstruction". United Nations . 31 October 2000. Archived from the original on 2006-09-29. Retrieved 2019-11-20.
  64. ↑ "Women's Participation in Peacebuilding" (PDF). United Nations Security Council . Retrieved 2 April 2012.
  65. ↑ Porter 185
  66. 1 2 "United Nations Peacebuilding Commission". United Nations . Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  67. 1 2 "Where we fund-United Nations Peacebuilding Fund". United Nations . Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  68. ↑ Keating 120
  69. ↑ Mac Ginty 180
  70. ↑ Keating XLII-XLIII
  71. ↑ Tarnoff 14
  72. ↑ Tarnoff 2
  73. ↑ "2010 Review". United Nations . Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  74. ↑ Moore, Jina. "United Nations Peacebuilding Commission in Africa". 9 Dec 2011. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
  75. ↑ Steinert, Janina Isabel; Grimm, Sonja (2015-11-01). "Too good to be true? United Nations peacebuilding and the democratization of war-torn states". Conflict Management and Peace Science. 32 (5): 513–535. doi:10.1177/0738894214559671. ISSN   0738-8942. S2CID   16428285.
  76. ↑ David Chandler, Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-building, London: Pluto Press, 2006.
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