Patriarchy

Last updated

Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of dominance and privilege are primarily held by men. [1] [2] [3] It is used, both as a technical anthropological term for families or clans controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males and in feminist theory where it is used to describe broad social structures in which men dominate over women and children. In these theories it is often extended to a variety of manifestations in which men have social privileges over others causing exploitation or oppression, such as through male dominance of moral authority and control of property. [4] [5] [6] Patriarchal societies can be patrilineal or matrilineal, meaning that property and title are inherited by the male or female lineage respectively. [7]

Contents

Patriarchy is associated various ideas forming patriarchal ideology that acts to explain and justify it and attributes it to inherent natural differences between men and women, devine commanded or other fixed structures. Sociologists hold varied opinions on whether patriarchy is a social product or an outcome of innate differences between the sexes. Sociobiologists compare human gender roles to sexed behavior in other primates and some argue that gender inequality comes primarily from genetic and reproductive differences between men and women. Social constructionists contest this argument, arguing that gender roles and gender inequity are instruments of power and have become social norms to maintain control over women.

Historically, patriarchy has manifested itself in the social, legal, political, religious, and economic organization of a range of different cultures. [8] Most contemporary societies are, in practice, patriarchal. [9] [10]

Etymology and usage

Patriarchy literally means "the rule of the father" [11] [12] and comes from the Greek πατριάρχης (patriarkhēs), [13] [14] "father or chief of a race", [15] which is a compound of πατριά (patria), "lineage, descent, family, fatherland" [16] (from πατήρpatēr, "father") [17] and ἀρχή (arkhē), "domination, authority, sovereignty". [18]

Historically, the term patriarchy has been used to refer to autocratic rule by the male head of a family; however, since the late 20th century it has also been used to refer to social systems in which power is primarily held by adult men. [19] [20] [21] The term was particularly used by writers associated with second-wave feminism such as Kate Millett; these writers sought to use an understanding of patriarchal social relations to liberate women from male domination. [22] [23] This concept of patriarchy was developed to explain male dominance as a social, rather than biological, phenomenon. [20]

History

Pre-history

The first evidence of patriarchal structures are pointed to, by some researchers, to be placed deep in human evolutionary past at the first signs of sexual division of labour which happened, about 2 million years ago. [24] [25] [26] Other anthropological, archaeological and evolutionary psychological evidence suggests that most prehistoric societies were relatively egalitarian, [9] and suggests that patriarchal social structures did not develop until after the end of the Pleistocene epoch, following social and technological developments such as agriculture and domestication. [27] [28] [29] According to Robert M. Strozier, historical research has not yet found a specific "initiating event". [30] Gerda Lerner asserts that there was no single event, and documents that patriarchy as a social system arose in different parts of the world at different times. [31] Some scholars point to social and technological events about six thousand years ago (4000 BCE), [32] [33] while others suggest an evolutionary process during a period of resource scarcity in Africa approximately 2 million years ago [25] [26] as the origin of fatherhood, and the beginning of the of patriarchy.

Marxist theory, as articulated mainly by Friedrich Engels in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State , assigns the origin of patriarchy to the emergence of private property, which has traditionally been controlled by men. In this view, men directed household production and sought to control women in order to ensure the passing of family property to their own (male) offspring, while women were limited to household labor and producing children. [19] [22] [34] Lerner disputes this idea, arguing that patriarchy emerged before the development of class-based society and the concept of private property. [35] [ page needed ]

Domination by men of women is found in the Ancient Near East as far back as 3100 BCE, as are restrictions on a woman's reproductive capacity and exclusion from "the process of representing or the construction of history". [30] According to some researchers, with the appearance of the Hebrews, there is also "the exclusion of woman from the God-humanity covenant". [30] [31]

The archaeologist Marija Gimbutas argues that waves of kurgan-building invaders from the Ukrainian steppes into the early agricultural cultures of Old Europe in the Aegean, the Balkans and southern Italy instituted male hierarchies that led to the rise of patriarchy in Western society. [36] Steven Taylor argues that the rise of patriarchal domination was associated with the appearance of socially stratified hierarchical polities, institutionalised violence and the separated individuated ego associated with a period of climatic stress. [37]

In the book Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human [24] British primatologist Richard Wrangham suggests that the origin of the division of labor between males and females may have originated with the invention of cooking, [38] [39] which is estimated to have happened simultaneously with humans gaining control of fire between 1 and 2 million years ago. [40] The idea was early proposed by Friedrich Engels in an unfinished essay from 1876.

Ancient history

A prominent Greek general Meno, in the Platonic dialogue of the same name, sums up the prevailing sentiment in Classical Greece about the respective virtues of men and women. He says: [41]

First of all, if you take the virtue of a man, it is easily stated that a man's virtue is this—that he be competent to manage the affairs of his city, and to manage them so as to benefit his friends and harm his enemies, and to take care to avoid suffering harm himself. Or take a woman's virtue: there is no difficulty in describing it as the duty of ordering the house well, looking after the property indoors, and obeying her husband.

— Meno, Plato in Twelve Volumes

The works of Aristotle portrayed women as morally, intellectually, and physically inferior to men; saw women as the property of men; claimed that women's role in society was to reproduce and to serve men in the household; and saw male domination of women as natural and virtuous. [42] [43] [44]

Gerda Lerner, author of The Creation of Patriarchy, states that Aristotle believed that women had colder blood than men, which made women not evolve into men, the sex that Aristotle believed to be perfect and superior. Maryanne Cline Horowitz stated that Aristotle believed that "soul contributes the form and model of creation". This implies that any imperfection that is caused in the world must be caused by a woman because one cannot acquire an imperfection from perfection (which he perceived as male). Aristotle had a hierarchical ruling structure in his theories. Lerner claims that through this patriarchal belief system, passed down generation to generation, people have been conditioned to believe that men are superior to women. These symbols are benchmarks which children learn about when they grow up, and the cycle of patriarchy continues much past the Greeks. [45]

Egypt left no philosophical record, but Herodotus left a record of his shock at the contrast between the roles of Egyptian women and the women of Athens. He observed that Egyptian women attended market and were employed in trade. In ancient Egypt, middle-class women were eligible to sit on a local tribunal, engage in real estate transactions, and inherit or bequeath property. Women also secured loans, and witnessed legal documents. Athenian women were denied such rights. [46]

Greek influence spread, however, with the conquests of Alexander the Great, who was educated by Aristotle. [47]

During this time period in China, gender roles and patriarchy remained shaped by Confucianism. Adopted as the official religion in the Han dynasty, Confucianism has strong dictates regarding the behavior of women, declaring a woman's place in society, as well as outlining virtuous behavior. [48] Three Obediences and Four Virtues , a Confucian text, places a woman's value on her loyalty and obedience. It explains that an obedient woman is to obey their father before her marriage, her husband after marriage, and her first son if widowed, and that a virtuous woman must practice sexual propriety, proper speech, modest appearance, and hard work. [49] Ban Zhao, a Confucian disciple, writes in her book Precepts for Women , that a woman's primary concern is to subordinate themselves before patriarchal figures such as a husband or father, and that they need not concern themselves with intelligence or talent. [50] Ban Zhao is considered by some historians as an early champion for women's education in China, however her extensive writing on the value of a woman's mediocrity and servile behavior leaves others feeling that this narrative is the result of a misplaced desire to cast her in a contemporary feminist light. [51] Similarly to Three Obediences and Four Virtues, Precepts for Women was meant as a moral guide for proper feminine behavior, and was widely accepted as such for centuries. [52]

Post-classical history

In China's Ming Dynasty, widowed women were expected to never remarry, and unmarried women were expected to remain chaste for the duration of their lives. [53] Biographies of Exemplary Women , a book containing biographies of women who lived according to the Confucian ideals of virtuous womanhood, popularized an entire genre of similar writing during the Ming dynasty. Women who lived according to this Neo-Confucian ideal were celebrated in official documents, and some had structures erected in their honor. [54]

In ancient Japan, power in society was more evenly distributed, particularly in the religious domain, where Shintoism worships the goddess Amaterasu, and ancient writings were replete with references to great priestesses and magicians. However, at the time contemporary with Constantine in the West, "the emperor of Japan changed Japanese modes of worship", giving supremacy to male deities and suppressing female spiritual power in what religious feminists have called a "patriarchal revolution." [55]

Modern history

Although many 16th and 17th century theorists agreed with Aristotle's views concerning the place of women in society, none of them tried to prove political obligation on the basis of the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. The patriarchal political theory is closely associated with Sir Robert Filmer. Sometime before 1653, Filmer completed a work entitled Patriarcha . However, it was not published until after his death. In it, he defended the divine right of kings as having title inherited from Adam, the first man of the human species, according to Judeo-Christian tradition. [56]

However, in the latter half of the 18th century, clerical sentiments of patriarchy were meeting challenges from intellectual authorities – Diderot's Encyclopedia denies inheritance of paternal authority stating, "... reason shows us that mothers have rights and authority equal to those of fathers; for the obligations imposed on children originate equally from the mother and the father, as both are equally responsible for bringing them into the world. Thus the positive laws of God that relate to the obedience of children join the father and the mother without any differentiation; both possess a kind of ascendancy and jurisdiction over their children...." [57]

In the 19th century, various women began to question the commonly accepted patriarchal interpretation of Christian scripture. Quaker Sarah Grimké voiced skepticism about the ability of men to translate and interpret passages relating to the roles of the sexes without bias. She proposed alternative translations and interpretations of passages relating to women, and she applied historical and cultural criticism to a number of verses, arguing that their admonitions applied to specific historical situations, and were not to be viewed as universal commands. [58]

Elizabeth Cady Stanton used Grimké's criticism of biblical sources to establish a basis for feminist thought. She published The Woman's Bible , which proposed a feminist reading of the Old and New Testament. This tendency was enlarged by feminist theory, which denounced the patriarchal Judeo-Christian tradition. [59] In 2020 social theorist and theologian Elaine Storkey retold the stories of thirty biblical women in her book Women in a Patriarchal World and applied the challenges they faced to women today. Working from both the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament, she analysed different variations of patriarchy, and outlined the paradox of Rahab, a prostitute in the Old Testament who became a role-model in the New Testament Epistle of James, and Epistle to the Hebrews. [60] In his essay, A Judicial Patriarchy: Family Law at the Turn of the Century, Michael Grossberg coined the phrase judicial patriarchy stating that, "The judge became the buffer between the family and the state" and that, "Judicial patriarchs dominated family law because within these institutional and intraclass rivalries judges succeeded in protecting their power over the law governing the hearth. [61] : 290–291 

The sociologist Sylvia Walby defines patriarchy as "a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women". [4] Social stratification along gender lines, with power predominantly held by men, has been observed in most societies. [9] [20] [21]


In China's Qing dynasty, laws governing morality, sexuality, and gender-relations continued to be based on Confucian teachings. Men and women were both subject to strict laws regarding sexual behavior, however men were punished infrequently in comparison to women. Additionally, women's punishment often carried strong social stigma, "rendering [women] unmarriageable", a stigma which did not follow men. [62] Similarly, in the People's Republic of China, laws governing morality which were written as egalitarian were selectively enforced favoring men, permissively allowing female infanticide, while infanticide of any form was, by the letter of the law, prohibited. [63]

FIGHT PATRIARCHY - a graffito in Turin Fight Patriarchy graffiti in Turin.jpg
FIGHT PATRIARCHY – a graffito in Turin

Feminist theory

Feminist theorists have written extensively about patriarchy either as a primary cause of women's oppression, or as part of an interactive system. Shulamith Firestone, a radical-libertarian feminist, defines patriarchy as a system of oppression of women. Firestone believes that patriarchy is caused by the biological inequalities between women and men, e.g. that women bear children, while men do not. Firestone writes that patriarchal ideologies support the oppression of women and gives as an example the joy of giving birth, which she labels a patriarchal myth. For Firestone, women must gain control over reproduction in order to be free from oppression. [31] Feminist historian Gerda Lerner believes that male control over women's sexuality and reproductive functions is a fundamental cause and result of patriarchy. [35] Alison Jaggar also understands patriarchy as the primary cause of women's oppression. The system of patriarchy accomplishes this by alienating women from their bodies.

Interactive systems theorists Iris Marion Young and Heidi Hartmann believe that patriarchy and capitalism interact together to oppress women. Young, Hartmann, and other socialist and Marxist feminists use the terms patriarchal capitalism or capitalist patriarchy to describe the interactive relationship of capitalism and patriarchy in producing and reproducing the oppression of women. [64] According to Hartmann, the term patriarchy redirects the focus of oppression from the labour division to a moral and political responsibility liable directly to men as a gender. In its being both systematic and universal, therefore, the concept of patriarchy represents an adaptation of the Marxist concept of class and class struggle. [65]

Lindsey German represents an outlier in this regard. German argued for a need to redefine the origins and sources of the patriarchy, describing the mainstream theories as providing "little understanding of how women's oppression and the nature of the family have changed historically. Nor is there much notion of how widely differing that oppression is from class to class." [66] Instead, the patriarchy is not the result of men's oppression of women or sexism per se, with men not even identified as the main beneficiaries of such a system, but capital itself. As such, female liberation needs to begin "with an assessment of the material position of women in capitalist society." [66] In that, German differs from Young or Hartmann by rejecting the notion ("eternal truth") that the patriarchy is at the root of female oppression. [66]

Audre Lorde, an African American feminist writer and theorist, believed that racism and patriarchy were intertwined systems of oppression. [64] Sara Ruddick, a philosopher who wrote about "good mothers" in the context of maternal ethics, describes the dilemma facing contemporary mothers who must train their children within a patriarchal system. She asks whether a "good mother" trains her son to be competitive, individualistic, and comfortable within the hierarchies of patriarchy, knowing that he may likely be economically successful but a mean person, or whether she resists patriarchal ideologies and socializes her son to be cooperative and communal but economically unsuccessful. [31]

Gerda Lerner, in her 1986 The Creation of Patriarchy, makes a series of arguments about the origins and reproduction of patriarchy as a system of oppression of women, and concludes that patriarchy is socially constructed and seen as natural and invisible. [35]

Some feminist theorists believe that patriarchy is an unjust social system that is harmful to both men and women. [67] It often includes any social, political, or economic mechanism that evokes male dominance over women. Because patriarchy is a social construction, it can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations. [68]

Jaggar, Young, and Hartmann are among the feminist theorists who argue that the system of patriarchy should be completely overturned, especially the heteropatriarchal family, which they see as a necessary component of female oppression. The family not only serves as a representative of the greater civilization by pushing its own affiliates to change and obey, but performs as a component in the rule of the patriarchal state that rules its inhabitants with the head of the family. [69]

Many feminists (especially scholars and activists) have called for culture repositioning as a method for deconstructing patriarchy. Culture repositioning relates to culture change. It involves the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society. [70] Prior to the widespread use of the term patriarchy, early feminists used male chauvinism and sexism to refer roughly to the same phenomenon. [71] Author bell hooks argues that the new term identifies the ideological system itself (that men claim dominance and superiority to women) that can be believed and acted upon by either men or women, whereas the earlier terms imply only men act as oppressors of women. [71]

Sociologist Joan Acker, analyzing the concept of patriarchy and the role that it has played in the development of feminist thought, says that seeing patriarchy as a "universal, trans-historical and trans-cultural phenomenon" where "women were everywhere oppressed by men in more or less the same ways […] tended toward a biological essentialism." [72]

Anna Pollert has described use of the term patriarchy as circular and conflating description and explanation. She remarks the discourse on patriarchy creates a "theoretical impasse ... imposing a structural label on what it is supposed to explain" and therefore impoverishes the possibility of explaining gender inequalities. [73]

Biological theory

Studies of male sexual coercion and female resistance in nonhuman primates (for example, chimpanzees [74] [75] ) suggest that sexual conflicts of interest underlying the patriarchy precede the emergence of the human species. [76] However, the extent of male power over females varies greatly across different primate species. [76] Among bonobos (a close relative of humans), for example, male coercion of females is rarely, if ever, observed, [76] and bonobos are widely considered to be matriarchal in their social structure. [77] [78] [79]

There is also considerable variation in the role that gender plays in human societies, and there is no academic consensus on to what extent biology determines human social structure. The Encyclopædia Britannica states that "...many cultures bestow power preferentially on one sex or the other...." [80] Some anthropologists, such as Floriana Ciccodicola, have argued that patriarchy is a cultural universal, [81] and the masculinities scholar David Buchbinder suggests that Roland Barthes' description of the term ex-nomination, i.e. patriarchy as the 'norm' or common sense, is relevant. [82] [ clarification needed ] However, there do exist cultures that some anthropologists have described as matriarchal. Among the Mosuo (a tiny society in the Yunnan Province in China), for example, women exert greater power, authority, and control over decision-making. [83] Other societies are matrilinear or matrilocal, primarily among indigenous tribal groups. [84] Some hunter-gatherer groups, such as the !Kung of southern Africa, [9] have been characterized as largely egalitarian. [29]

Some proponents[ who? ] of the biological determinist understanding of patriarchy argue that because of human female biology, women are more fit to perform roles such as anonymous child-rearing at home, rather than high-profile decision-making roles, such as leaders in battles. Through this basis, "the existence of a sexual division of labor in primitive societies is a starting point as much for purely social accounts of the origins of patriarchy as for biological." [85] : 157 [ verification needed ] Hence, the rise of patriarchy is recognized through this apparent "sexual division". [85] [ verification needed ]

Patriarchy as a human universal

An early theory in evolutionary psychology offered an explanation for the origin of patriarchy which starts with the view that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and, therefore in most species females are a limiting factor over which males will compete. This is sometimes referred to as Bateman's principle. It suggests females place the most important preference on males who control more resources that can help her and her offspring, which in turn causes an evolutionary pressure on males to be competitive with each other in order to gain resources and power. [86]

Some sociobiologists, such as Steven Goldberg, argue that social behavior is primarily determined by genetics, and thus that patriarchy arises more as a result of inherent biology than social conditioning. Goldberg contends that patriarchy is a universal feature of human culture. In 1973, Goldberg wrote, "The ethnographic studies of every society that has ever been observed explicitly state that these feelings were present, there is literally no variation at all." [87] Goldberg has critics among anthropologists. Concerning Goldberg's claims about the "feelings of both men and women", Eleanor Leacock countered in 1974 that the data on women's attitudes are "sparse and contradictory", and that the data on male attitudes about male–female relations are "ambiguous". Also, the effects of colonialism on the cultures represented in the studies were not considered. [88]

Anthropologist and psychologist Barbara Smuts argues that patriarchy evolved in humans through conflict between the reproductive interests of males and the reproductive interests of females. She lists six ways that it emerged:[ further explanation needed ]

  1. a reduction in female allies
  2. elaboration of male-male alliances
  3. increased male control over resources
  4. increased hierarchy formation among men
  5. female strategies that reinforce male control over females
  6. the evolution of language and its power to create ideology. [76]

Sex hormones and social structure

Patriarchal and matriarchal social structure in primates may be mediated by sex hormones. Studies have found higher pre-natal testosterone or lower digit ratio to be correlated with sensation seeking, [89] toy preference [90] as well as higher aggression in human males. [91] [92] [93] [94] [95]

In humans, patriarchal social structure may have evolved due to intersexual selection (i.e. female mate selection), or intrasexual selection (i.e. male-male competition). [96] [97] Physical features associated with testosterone, such as facial hair and lower voices, are sometimes used to gain a better understanding of sexual pressures in the human evolutionary environment. These features may have appeared as a result of female mate selection, or because of male-male competition. Men with beards and low voices are perceived as more dominant, aggressive, and high-status compared to their cleanshaven higher-voiced counterparts, meaning that men with facial hair and lower voices may be more likely to attain a high status and increase their reproductive success. [96] [98] [97] [99]

Male violence

Psychologist and professor Mark van Vugt, from VU University at Amsterdam, Netherlands, has argued that human males have evolved more aggressive and group-oriented behavior in order to gain access to resources, territories, mates and higher status. [100] [101] His theory, the Male Warrior hypothesis, posits that males throughout hominid history have evolved to form coalitions or groups in order to engage in inter-group aggression and increase their chances of acquiring resources, mates and territory. [100] [102] Vugt argues that this evolved male social dynamic explains the human history of war to modern-day gang rivalry. [100] [102] In modern society most crimes are committed by men. [103] [104] Sociologist/criminologist Lee Ellis put forward an evolutionary explanation for male criminality known as the evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory. Investigations of prison inmates generally show that the most brutal criminals have the most testosterone, compared with those who were serving sentences for more harmless crimes. [105] [106] [107] [ clarification needed ] Therefore, Ellis posits that the human male brain has evolved in such a way as to be competitive at the verge of risk and gangsterism is an example of an extreme form of male behavior. [108] [109] [110] [ clarification needed ]

Social theory

Sociologists tend to reject predominantly biological explanations of patriarchy [83] and contend that socialization processes are primarily responsible for establishing gender roles. [111] According to standard sociological theory, patriarchy is the result of sociological constructions that are passed down from generation to generation. [112] These constructions are most pronounced in societies with traditional cultures and less economic development. [113] Even in modern, developed societies, however, gender messages conveyed by family, mass media, and other institutions largely favor males having a dominant status. [111]

Although patriarchy exists within the scientific atmosphere,[ clarification needed ] "the periods over which women would have been at a physiological disadvantage in participation in hunting through being at a late stage of pregnancy or early stage of child-rearing would have been short", [85] : 157  during the time of the nomads, patriarchy still grew with power. Lewontin and others argue that such biological determinism unjustly limits women. In his study, he states women behave a certain way not because they are biologically inclined to, but rather because they are judged by "how well they conform to the stereotypical local image of femininity". [85] : 137 

Feminists[ who? ] believe that people have gendered biases, which are perpetuated and enforced across generations by those who benefit from them. [85] For instance, it has historically been claimed that women cannot make rational decisions during their menstrual periods. This claim cloaks the fact that men also have periods of time where they can be aggressive and irrational; furthermore, unrelated effects of aging and similar medical problems are often blamed on menopause, amplifying its reputation. [114] These biological traits and others specific to women, such as their ability to get pregnant, are often used against them as an attribute of weakness. [85] [114]

Sociologist Sylvia Walby has composed six overlapping structures that define patriarchy and that take different forms in different cultures and different times:

  1. The household: women are more likely to have their labor expropriated by their husbands such as through housework and raising children
  2. Paid work: women are likely to be paid less and face exclusion from paid work
  3. The state: women are unlikely to have formal power and representation
  4. Violence: women are more prone to being abused
  5. Sexuality: women's sexuality is more likely to be treated negatively
  6. Culture: representation of women in media, and popular culture is "within a patriarchal gaze". [4]

The idea that patriarchy is natural has, however, come under attack from many sociologists, explaining that patriarchy evolved due to historical, rather than biological, conditions. In technologically simple societies, men's greater physical strength and women's common experience of pregnancy combined to sustain patriarchy. [85] Gradually, technological advances, especially industrial machinery, diminished the primacy of physical strength in everyday life. Introduction of household appliances reduced the amount of manual labor needed in the households [115] [116] . Similarly, contraception has given women control over their reproductive cycle. [117] [ relevant? ]

Psychoanalytic theories

While the term patriarchy often refers to male domination generally, another interpretation sees it as literally "rule of the father". [118] So some people[ who? ] believe patriarchy does not refer simply to of male power over women, but the expression of power dependent on age as well as gender, such as by older men over women, children, and younger men. Some of these younger men may inherit and therefore have a stake in continuing these conventions. Others may rebel. [119] [120] [ further explanation needed ]

This psychoanalytic model is based upon revisions of Freud's description of the normally neurotic family using the analogy of the story of Oedipus. [121] [122] Those who fall outside the Oedipal triad of mother/father/child are less subject to male authority. [123]

The operations of power in such cases are usually enacted unconsciously. All are subject, even fathers are bound by its strictures. [124] It is represented in unspoken traditions and conventions performed in everyday behaviors, customs, and habits. [118] The triangular relationship of a father, a mother and an inheriting eldest son frequently form the dynamic and emotional narratives of popular culture and are enacted performatively in rituals of courtship and marriage. [125] They provide conceptual models for organising power relations in spheres that have nothing to do with the family, for example, politics and business. [126] [127] [128]

Arguing from this standpoint, radical feminist Shulamith Firestone wrote in her 1970 The Dialectic of Sex :

Marx was on to something more profound than he knew when he observed that the family contained within itself in embryo all the antagonisms that later develop on a wide scale within the society and the state. For unless revolution uproots the basic social organisation, the biological family – the vinculum through which the psychology of power can always be smuggled – the tapeworm of exploitation will never be annihilated. [129]

See also

Patriarchal models

Comparable social models

Contrast

Related Research Articles

Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that societies prioritize the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.

Misandry is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against men.

Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other social divisions such as in race, class, and sexual orientation. The ideology and movement emerged in the 1960s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Matriarchy</span> Social system with female rule

Matriarchy is a social system in which women hold the primary power positions in roles of authority. In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority, social privilege and control of property. While those definitions apply in general English, definitions specific to anthropology and feminism differ in some respects.

Triple oppression, also called double jeopardy, Jane Crow, or triple exploitation, is a theory developed by black socialists in the United States, such as Claudia Jones. The theory states that a connection exists between various types of oppression, specifically classism, racism, and sexism. It hypothesizes that all three types of oppression need to be overcome at once.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Femininity</span> Attributes associated with women

Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender.

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as anthropology and sociology, communication, media studies, psychoanalysis, political theory, home economics, literature, education, and philosophy.

Socialist feminism rose in the 1960s and 1970s as an offshoot of the feminist movement and New Left that focuses upon the interconnectivity of the patriarchy and capitalism. However, the ways in which women's private, domestic, and public roles in society has been conceptualized, or thought about, can be traced back to Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) and William Thompson's utopian socialist work in the 1800s. Ideas about overcoming the patriarchy by coming together in female groups to talk about personal problems stem from Carol Hanisch. This was done in an essay in 1969 which later coined the term 'the personal is political.' This was also the time that second wave feminism started to surface which is really when socialist feminism kicked off. Socialist feminists argue that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression.

Cultural feminism, the view that there is a "female nature" or "female essence", attempts to revalue and redefine attributes ascribed to femaleness. It is also used to describe theories that commend innate differences between women and men. Cultural feminism diverged from radical feminism, when some radical feminists rejected the previous feminist and patriarchal notion that feminine traits are undesirable and returned to an essentialist view of gender differences in which they regard female traits as superior.

Materialist feminism highlights capitalism and patriarchy as a central aspect in understanding women's oppression. It focuses on the material, or physical, aspects that define oppression. Under materialist feminism, gender is seen as a social construct, and society forces gender roles, such as rearing children, onto women. Materialist feminism's ideal vision is a society in which women are treated socially and economically the same as men. The theory centers on social change rather than seeking transformation within the capitalist system.

Male privilege is the system of advantages or rights that are available to men solely on the basis of their sex. A man's access to these benefits may vary depending on how closely they match their society's ideal masculine norm.

African feminism is a type of feminism innovated by African women that specifically addresses the conditions and needs of continental African women. African feminism includes many strains of its own, including Motherism, Femalism, Snail-sense Feminism, Womanism/women palavering, Nego-feminism, and African Womanism. Because Africa is not a monolith, these feminisms are not all reflective of the experiences African women have. Some of the feminisms are more specific to certain groups of African women. African feminism is sometimes aligned with, in dialogue or in conflict with, Black Feminism or African womanism as well as other feminisms and feminist movements, including nationally based ones, such as feminism in Sweden, feminism in India, feminism in Mexico, feminism in Japan, feminism in Germany, feminism in South Africa, and so on.

Masculism or masculinism may variously refer to ideologies and socio-political movements that seek to eliminate sexism against men, equalize their rights with women, and increase adherence to or promotion of attributes regarded as typical of men and boys. The terms may also refer to the men's rights movement or men's movement, as well as a type of antifeminism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist movements and ideologies</span>

A variety of movements of feminist ideology have developed over the years. They vary in goals, strategies, and affiliations. They often overlap, and some feminists identify themselves with several branches of feminist thought.

Feminist political theory is an area of philosophy that focuses on understanding and critiquing the way political philosophy is usually construed and on articulating how political theory might be reconstructed in a way that advances feminist concerns. Feminist political theory combines aspects of both feminist theory and political theory in order to take a feminist approach to traditional questions within political philosophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compulsory heterosexuality</span> Social vision of heterosexuality as the natural inclination or obligation

Compulsory heterosexuality often shortened to comphet, is the theory that heterosexuality is assumed and enforced upon people by a patriarchal and heteronormative society. The term was popularized by Adrienne Rich in her 1980 essay titled "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence". According to Rich's theory, women in every culture are believed to have an innate preference for relationships with men and this leads women to devalue and minimize the importance of their relationships with other women; she suggests that women are socialized to identify with males and to cast their "social, political, and intellectual allegiances" with them, and are discouraged from identifying with other females.

The principle of male as norm holds that language referring to females, such as the suffix -ess, the use of man to mean "human", and other such devices, strengthens the perceptions that the male category is the norm and that the corresponding female category is a derivation and thus less important. The idea was first clearly expressed by 19th-century thinkers who began deconstructing the English language to expose the products and footings of patriarchy.

Vegetarian ecofeminism is an activist and academic movement which states that all types of oppression are linked and must be eradicated, with a focus on including the domination of humans over nonhuman animals. Through the feminist concept known as intersectionality, it is recognized that sexism, racism, classism, and other forms of inter human discrimination are all connected. Vegetarian ecofeminism aims to include the domination of not only the environment but also of nonhuman animals to the list. Vegetarian ecofeminism is part of the academic and philosophical field of ecofeminism, which states that the ways in which the privileged dominates the oppressed should include the way humans dominate nature. A major theme within ecofeminism is the belief that there is a strong connection between the domination of women and the domination of nature, and that both must be eradicated in order to end oppression.

In feminist theory, heteropatriarchy or cisheteropatriarchy, is a socio-political system where (primarily) cisgender and heterosexual males have authority over cisgender females and people with other sexual orientations and gender identities. It is a term that emphasizes that discrimination against women and LGBT people is derived from the same sexist social principle.

<i>The Creation of Patriarchy</i> 1986 book by Gerda Lerner

The Creation of Patriarchy is a non-fiction book written by Gerda Lerner in 1986 as an explanation for the origins of misogyny in ancient Mesopotamia and the following Western societies. She traces the "images, metaphors, [and] myths" that lead to patriarchal concepts' existence in Western society. She believes that the creation of patriarchy in the ancient Near East was a 2500-year period from nearly 3100 BC to 600 BC rather than a single event.

References

  1. ↑ "Definition of PATRIARCHY". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
  2. ↑ "patriarchy". Britannica.
  3. ↑ "Meaning of patriarchy in English". Cambridge Dictionary.
  4. 1 2 3 Walby, Sylvia (May 1989). "Theorising Patriarchy". Sociology. 23 (2): 213–234. doi:10.1177/0038038589023002004. JSTOR   42853921. S2CID   220676988 – via JSTOR. "I shall define patriarchy as a system of social structures, and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women." "There are six main patriarchal structures which together constitute a system of patriarchy. These are: a patriarchal mode of production in which women's labour is expropriated by their husbands; patriarchal relations within waged labour; the patriarchal state; male violence; patriarchal relations in sexuality; and patriarchal culture."
  5. ↑ Lerner, Gerda (1986). The creation of patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 238–239. ISBN   978-0-19-503996-2. OCLC   13323175. In its narrow meaning, patriarchy refers to the system, historically derived from Greek and Roman law, in which the male head of the household had absolute legal and economic power over his dependent female and male family members. "Patriarchy in its wider definition means the manifestation and institutionalization of male dominance over women and children in the family and the extension of male dominance over women in society in general."
  6. ↑ Hunnicutt, Gwen (1 May 2009). "Varieties of Patriarchy and Violence Against Women: Resurrecting "Patriarchy" as a Theoretical Tool". Violence Against Women. 15 (5): 553–573. doi:10.1177/1077801208331246. ISSN   1077-8012. PMID   19182049. S2CID   206667077. The core concept of patriarchy—systems of male domination and female subordination "Although patriarchy has been variously defined, for purposes of this article, it means social arrangements that privilege males, where men as a group dominate women as a group, both structurally and ideologically—hierarchical arrangements that manifest in varieties across history and social space."
  7. ↑ Chizuko, Ueno (2005). Contemporary Japanese thought. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 236. ISBN   9780231509886.
  8. ↑ Malti-Douglas, Fedwa (2007). Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender. Detroit: Macmillan. ISBN   978-0-02-865960-2.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Lockard, Craig (2015). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History (3rd ed.). Stamford, Conn.: Cengage Learning. p. 88. ISBN   978-1-285-78312-3. Today, as in the past, men generally hold political, economic, and religious power in most societies thanks to patriarchy, a system whereby men largely control women and children, shape ideas about appropriate gender behavior, and generally dominate society.
  10. ↑ Pateman, Carole (2016). "Sexual Contract". In Naples, Nancy A. (ed.). The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies, Volume 5. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss468. ISBN   978-1-4051-9694-9. The heyday of the patriarchal structures analyzed in The Sexual Contract extended from the 1840s to the late 1970s [...] Nevertheless, men's government of women is one of the most deeply entrenched of all power structures
  11. ↑ Ferguson, Kathy E. (1999). "Patriarchy". In Tierney, Helen (ed.). Women's Studies Encyclopedia, Volume 2 . Greenwood Publishing. p. 1048. ISBN   978-0-313-31072-0.
  12. ↑ Green, Fiona Joy (2010). "Patriarchal Ideology of Motherhood". In O'Reilly, Andrea (ed.). Encyclopedia of Motherhood, Volume 1. SAGE. p. 969. ISBN   978-1-4129-6846-1.
  13. ↑ "patriarchy". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 3 November 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
  14. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "patriarchy". Online Etymology Dictionary .
  15. ↑ πατριάρχης . Liddell, Henry George ; Scott, Robert ; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  16. ↑ πατριά . Liddell, Henry George ; Scott, Robert ; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  17. ↑ πατήρ . Liddell, Henry George ; Scott, Robert ; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  18. ↑ ἀρχή . Liddell, Henry George ; Scott, Robert ; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  19. 1 2 Cannell, Fenella; Green, Sarah (1996). "Patriarchy" . In Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica (eds.). The Social Science Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 592–593. ISBN   978-0-41-510829-4.
  20. 1 2 3 Meagher, Michelle (2011). "Patriarchy". In Ritzer, George; Ryan, J. Michael (eds.). The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. pp.  441–442. ISBN   978-1-4051-8353-6.
  21. 1 2 Hennessy, Rosemary (2012). "Patriarchy". In Harrington, A.; Marshall, B.L.; Muller, H. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Social Theory. Routledge. pp.  420–422. ISBN   978-1-13-678694-5.
  22. 1 2 Gardiner, Jean (1999). "Patriarchy" . In O'Hara, Phillip A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2: L–Z. Routledge. pp. 843–846. ISBN   978-0-41-518718-3.
  23. ↑ Fitzpatrick, Tony; et al., eds. (2013). "Patriarchy". International Encyclopedia of Social Policy. Routledge. pp.  987–. ISBN   978-1-13-661004-2.
  24. 1 2 Wrangham, Richard (2009). Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. Basic Books. ISBN   978-0-465-01362-3.
  25. 1 2 Betuel, Emma (2020). "Why ancient men had to evolve from carousers to doting dads — or die".{{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  26. 1 2 Alger, Ingela; Hooper, Paul L.; Cox, Donald; Stieglitz, Jonathan; Kaplan, Hillard S. (19 May 2020). "Paternal provisioning results from ecological change". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 117, no. 20. pp. 10746–10754. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1917166117 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   7245097 . PMID   32358187.
  27. ↑ Hughes, Sarah Shaver & Hughes Brady (2001). "Women in Ancient Civilizations". In Adas, Michael (ed.). Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history. Temple University Press. pp. 118–119. ISBN   978-1-56639-832-9.
  28. ↑ Eagly, Alice H. & Wood, Wendy (July 1999). "The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles". American Psychologist. 54 (6): 408–423. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.408. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012.
  29. 1 2 Erdal, David; Whiten, Andrew (1996). "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian intelligence in human evolution". In Mellars, Paul; Gibson, Kathleen Rita (eds.). Modelling the early human mind. Cambridge McDonald Monograph Series. Cambridge Oakville, Connecticut: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge. ISBN   978-0-9519420-1-7.
  30. 1 2 3 Strozier, Robert M. (2002) Foucault, Subjectivity, and Identity: Historical Constructions of Subject and Self p. 46
  31. 1 2 3 4 Lerner, Gerda (1986). The Creation of Patriarchy . Women and History. Oxford University Press. pp.  8–11. ISBN   978-0-19-503996-2.
  32. ↑ Kraemer, Sebastian (1991). "The Origins of Fatherhood: An Ancient Family Process". Family Process . 30 (4): 377–392. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.1991.00377.x. PMID   1790784.
  33. ↑ Ehrenberg, 1989; Harris, M. (1993) The Evolution of Human Gender Hierarchies; Leibowitz, 1983; Lerner, 1986; Sanday, 1981
  34. ↑ Bryson, Valerie (2000). "Feminism: Marxist". In Kramarae, Cheris; Spender, Dale (eds.). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge, Volume 2. New York. p. 791. ISBN   978-0-415-92088-9.
  35. 1 2 3 Lerner, Gerda (1986). The creation of patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 238–239. ISBN   978-0-19-503996-2. OCLC   13323175.
  36. ↑ Gimbutas, Marija (1992). "The end of Old Europe: the intrusion of Steppe Pastoralists from South Russia and the transformation of Europe". The Civilization of the Goddess: The World of Old Europe. San Francisco, California: Harper Collins. pp. 351–510. ISBN   978-0-06-250337-4.
  37. ↑ Taylor, Steven (2005). "What's wrong with human beings?". The Fall: The Insanity of the Ego in Human History. Winchester: O Books. pp. 17–19. ISBN   978-1-905047-20-8.
  38. ↑ Bradt, Steve; Sciences (1 June 2009). "Invention of cooking drove evolution of the human species, new book argues".{{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  39. ↑ Rehg, Jennifer (11 April 2018). "Review of "Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human"". The Councilor: A Journal of the Social Studies. 71 (1).
  40. ↑ Herculano-Houzel, Suzana (29 April 2016). "The Human Advantage: A New Understanding of How Our Brain Became Remarkable". The MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262034258.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-262-03425-8.{{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  41. ↑ W.R.M. Lamb (1967). "71E: Meno". Plato in Twelve Volumes. Vol. 3. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
  42. ↑ Fishbein, Harold D. (2002). Peer prejudice and discrimination: the origins of prejudice (2nd ed.). Psychology Press. p. 27. ISBN   978-0-8058-3772-8.
  43. ↑ Dubber, Markus Dirk (2005). The police power: patriarchy and the foundations of American government. Columbia University Press. pp. 5–7. ISBN   978-0-231-13207-7.
  44. ↑ Bar On, Bat-Ami (1994). Engendering origins: critical feminist readings in Plato and Aristotle. SUNY Press. ISBN   978-0-7914-1643-3.
  45. ↑ Lerner, Gerda (1986). "Chapter 10: Symbols" . The Creation of Patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press.
  46. ↑ Ptahhotep, trans. John A. Wilson. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to The Old Testament. James B. Pritchard, ed. Princeton University Press, 1950. p. 412
  47. ↑ Bristow, John Temple (1991). What Paul Really Said About Women: an Apostle's liberating views on equality in marriage, leadership, and love. New York: HarperOne. ISBN   978-0-06-061063-0.
  48. ↑ Adler, Joseph A. (Winter 2006). "Daughter/Wife/Mother or Sage/Immortal/Bodhisattva? Women in the Teaching of Chinese Religions". ASIANetwork Exchange. XIV (2).
  49. ↑ Largen, Kristin Johnston (2017). "A Brief Introduction to Confucianism". Finding God Among Our Neighbors: An Interfaith Systematic Theology. Finding God Among Our Neighbors. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. pp. 61–88. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1ggjhm3.7. ISBN   978-1-5064-2330-2. JSTOR   j.ctt1ggjhm3.7.
  50. ↑ Gao, Xiongya (2003). "Women Existing for Men: Confucianism and Social Injustice against Women in China". Race, Gender & Class. 10 (3): 114–125. JSTOR   41675091.
  51. ↑ Goldin, Paul R. (2005). "Ban Zhao in Her Time and in Ours". After Confucius: Studies in Early Chinese Philosophy. After Confucius. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 112–118. ISBN   978-0-8248-2842-4. JSTOR   j.ctt1wn0qtj.11.
  52. ↑ Bray, Francesca (1997). Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-91900-6. OCLC   42922667.
  53. ↑ Lin, Yutang (2011) [1935]. My Country and My People. ISBN   978-1-84902-664-2. OCLC   744466115.
  54. ↑ Waltner, Ann (1981). "Widows and Remarriage in Ming and Early Qing China". Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. 8 (3): 129–146. JSTOR   41298764.
  55. ↑ Ellwood, Robert (1986). "Patriarchal Revolution in Ancient Japan: Episodes from the "Nihonshoki" Sūjin Chronicle". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 2 (2): 23–37. ISSN   8755-4178. JSTOR   25002039.
  56. ↑ Gordon, Schochet (2004). "Patriarchy and Paternalism". Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN   978-0-684-31200-2.
  57. ↑ Louis, Chevalier de Jaucourt (Biography) (February 2003). "Encyclopedie, Paternal Authority". Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert – Collaborative Translation Project. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  58. ↑ Durso, Pamela R. (2003). The Power of Woman: The Life and writings of Sarah Moore Grimké (1st ed.). Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press. pp. 130–138. ISBN   978-0-86554-876-3.
  59. ↑ Castro, Ginette (1990). American Feminism: a contemporary history . NYU Press. p.  31.
  60. ↑ Storkey, Elaine (2020). Women in a Patriarchal World; Twenty five empowering stories from the Bible (1st ed.). London, UK.: SPCK Publishing. p. 144.
  61. ↑ Gossberg, Michael (1985). "A judicial patriarchy: family law at the turn of the century". In Grossberg, Michael (ed.). Governing the hearth: law and the family in nineteenth-century America. Chapel Hill London: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 289–307. ISBN   978-0-8078-6336-7.
    See also: Gossberg, Michael (1985). "Crossing boundaries: nineteenth-century domestic relations law and the merger of family and legal history". American Bar Foundation Research Journal . 10 (4): 799–847. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.1985.tb00520.x.
  62. ↑ Ruskola, Teemu (1994). "Law, Sexual Morality, and Gender Equality in Qing and Communist China". The Yale Law Journal. 103 (8): 2531–2565. doi:10.2307/797055. JSTOR   797055.
  63. ↑ Jimmerson, Julie (Winter 1991). "Female Infanticide in China: An Examination of Cultural and Legal Norms". Pacific Basin Law Journal. 8: 33 – via eScholarship.org.
  64. 1 2 Rosemarie, Tong; Botts, Tina Fernandes (18 July 2017). Feminist thought : a more comprehensive introduction (Fifth ed.). New York. ISBN   978-0-8133-5070-7. OCLC   979993556.
  65. ↑ Hartmann, Heidi. "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism". Capital and Class. 8: 1.
  66. 1 2 3 "Lindsey German: Theories of Patriarchy (Spring 1981)". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
  67. ↑ David A. J. Richards (5 February 2014). Resisting Injustice and the Feminist Ethics of Care in the Age of Obama: "Suddenly ... All the Truth Was Coming Out". Routledge Research in American Politics and Governance. p. 143. ISBN   978-1-135-09970-1 . Retrieved 11 February 2015. Feminism, as I understand it, arises in resistance to the gender binary enforced by the patriarchy, an injustice that is as harmful to men as it is to women, as we can see in the long history of unjust wars, rationalized by patriarchy, in which men have fought and been killed and injured and traumatized.
  68. ↑ Tickner, Ann J. (2001). "Patriarchy". Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1197–1198. ISBN   978-0-415-24352-0.
  69. ↑ Montiel, Aimée Vega (8 October 2014). "Violence against Women and Media: Advancements and Challenges of a Research and Political Agenda". UNESCO.
  70. ↑ Chigbu, Uchendu Eugene (2015). "Repositioning culture for development: women and development in a Nigerian rural community". Community, Work & Family. 18 (3): 334–350. doi:10.1080/13668803.2014.981506. S2CID   144448501.
  71. 1 2 hooks, bell (2004). "Understanding patriarchy". The will to change: men, masculinity, and love. Washington Square Press. pp. 17–25. ISBN   978-0-7434-8033-8. Patriarchy is a political-social system that insists that males are inherently dominating, superior to everything and everyone deemed weak, especially females, and endowed with the right to dominate and rule over the weak and to maintain that dominance through various forms of psychological terrorism and violence.
  72. ↑ Acker, Joan (1989). "The Problem with Patriarchy". Sociology. 23 (2): 235. doi:10.1177/0038038589023002005. S2CID   143683720.
  73. ↑ Pollert, Anna (1996). "Gender and Class Revisited, or the Poverty of 'Patriarchy'". Sociology. 30 (4): 235. doi:10.1177/0038038596030004002. S2CID   145758809.
  74. ↑ Feldblum, Joseph T.; Wroblewski, Emily E.; Rudicell, Rebecca S.; Hahn, Beatrice H.; Paiva, Thais; Cetinkaya-Rundel, Mine; Pusey, Anne E.; Gilby, Ian C. (December 2014). "Sexually coercive male chimpanzees sire more offspring". Current Biology. 24 (23): 2855–2860. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.039. PMC   4905588 . PMID   25454788.
  75. ↑ Thompson, ME (2014). "Sexual Conflict: Nice Guys Finish Last". Current Biology. 24 (23): R1125–R1127. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.056 . PMID   25465331.
  76. 1 2 3 4 Smuts, B (1995). "The evolutionary origins of patriarchy". Human Nature. 6 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1007/BF02734133. PMID   24202828. S2CID   17741169.
  77. ↑ Sommer, Volker; Bauer, Jan; Fowler, Andrew; Ortmann, Sylvia (2010). "Patriarchal Chimpanzees, Matriarchal Bonobos: Potential Ecological Causes of a Pan Dichotomy". Primates of Gashaka . Springer. pp.  469–501. ISBN   978-1-4419-7402-0.
  78. ↑ Bosson, Jennifer Katherine; Vandello, Joseph Alan; Buckner, Camille E. (27 February 2018). The Psychology of Sex and Gender. p. 185. ISBN   978-1-5063-3132-4.
  79. ↑ Angier, Natalie (10 September 2016). "In the Bonobo World, Female Camaraderie Prevails". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 7 May 2022.
  80. ↑ "Matriarchy". Encyclopædia Britannica . 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  81. ↑ Ciccodicola, Floriana (2012). Practicing anthropology in development processes: new perspectives for a radical anthropology. Roma: Edizioni Nuova Cultura. p. 160. ISBN   978-88-6134-791-5.
  82. ↑ Buchbinder, David (2013). "Troubling patriarchy". Studying men and masculinities. Abingdon, Oxon, UK; New York, N.Y.: Routledge. pp. 106–107. ISBN   978-0-415-57829-5.
  83. 1 2 Macionis, John J. (2012). Sociology (13th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN   0-205-18109-0
  84. ↑ Schlegel, Alice (1972). Male dominance and female autonomy: domestic authority in matrilineal societies. New Haven, Connecticut: HRAF Press. ISBN   978-0-87536-328-8.
  85. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lewontin, Richard C.; Rose, Steven; Kamin, Leon J. (1984). "The determined patriarchy". Not in our genes: biology, ideology, and human nature. New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 132–163. ISBN   978-0-14-022605-8. OCLC   10348941.
  86. ↑ Buss, David Michael; Schmitt, David P. (May 2011). "Evolutionary psychology and feminism". Sex Roles . 64 (9–10): 768–787. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9987-3. S2CID   7878675.
  87. ↑ Goldberg, Steven (1974). The inevitability of patriarchy. New York: W. Morrow. ISBN   978-0-688-05175-4.
  88. ↑ Leacock, Eleanor (June 1974). "Reviewed Work: The Inevitability of Patriarchy by Steven Goldberg". American Anthropologist . 76 (2): 363–365. doi: 10.1525/aa.1974.76.2.02a00280 . JSTOR   674209.
  89. ↑ Resnick, S.M.; Gottesman, I.I.; McGue, M. (1993). "Sensation seeking in opposite-sex twins: an effect of prenatal hormones?". Behavior Genetics. 23 (4): 323–329. doi:10.1007/BF01067432. PMID   8240211. S2CID   20328785.
  90. ↑ Rodgers, C.S.; Fagot, B.I.; Winebarger, A. (1998). "Gender-typed toy play in dizygotic twin pairs: a test of hormone transfer theory". Sex Roles. 39 (3/4): 173–184. doi:10.1023/A:1018894219859. S2CID   140919931.
  91. ↑ Bailey AA, Hurd PL (March 2005). "Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women". Biological Psychology. 68 (3): 215–22. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.05.001. PMID   15620791. S2CID   16606349.
  92. ↑ Benderlioglu Z, Nelson RJ (December 2004). "Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men". Hormones and Behavior. 46 (5): 558–64. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2004.06.004. PMID   15555497. S2CID   17464657.
  93. ↑ Liu J, Portnoy J, Raine A (August 2012). "Association between a marker for prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children". Development and Psychopathology. 24 (3): 771–82. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000363. PMC   4247331 . PMID   22781854.
  94. ↑ Butovskaya M, Burkova V, Karelin D, Fink B (1 October 2015). "Digit ratio (2D:4D), aggression, and dominance in the Hadza and the Datoga of Tanzania". American Journal of Human Biology. 27 (5): 620–27. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22718. PMID   25824265. S2CID   205303673.
  95. ↑ Joyce CW, Kelly JC, Chan JC, Colgan G, O'Briain D, Mc Cabe JP, Curtin W (November 2013). "Second to fourth digit ratio confirms aggressive tendencies in patients with boxers fractures". Injury. 44 (11): 1636–39. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2013.07.018. PMID   23972912.
  96. 1 2 Saxton, Tamsin K.; MacKey, Lauren L.; McCarty, Kristofor; Neave, Nick (March 2016). "A lover or a fighter? Opposing sexual selection pressures on men's vocal pitch and facial hair". Behavioral Ecology. 27 (2): 512–519. doi:10.1093/beheco/arv178. PMC   4797380 . PMID   27004013.
  97. 1 2 Puts, David Andrew; Gaulin, Steven J.C.; Verdolini, Katherine (July 2006). "Dominance and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in human voice pitch". Evolution and Human Behavior. 27 (4): 283–296. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.11.003.
  98. ↑ Dixson, Barnaby J.; Vasey, Paul L. (May 2012). "Beards augment perceptions of men's age, social status, and aggressiveness, but not attractiveness". Behavioral Ecology. 23 (3): 481–490. doi: 10.1093/beheco/arr214 .
  99. ↑ Puts, David A.; Hill, Alexander K.; Bailey, Drew H.; Walker, Robert S.; Rendall, Drew; Wheatley, John R.; Welling, Lisa L. M.; Dawood, Khytam; Cárdenas, Rodrigo; Burriss, Robert P.; Jablonski, Nina G.; Shriver, Mark D.; Weiss, Daniel; Lameira, Adriano R.; Apicella, Coren L.; Owren, Michael J.; Barelli, Claudia; Glenn, Mary E.; Ramos-Fernandez, Gabriel (April 2016). "Sexual selection on male vocal fundamental frequency in humans and other anthropoids". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 283 (1829): 20152830. doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.2830. PMC   4855375 . PMID   27122553.
  100. 1 2 3 Vugt, Mark Van (2006). "Gender Differences in Cooperation and Competition:The Male-Warrior Hypothesis" (PDF). Psychological Science. 18 (1): 19–23. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.518.3529 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01842.x. PMID   17362372. S2CID   3566509.
  101. ↑ McDonald, Melissa M.; Navarrete, Carlos David; Van Vugt, Mark (5 March 2012). "Evolution and the psychology of intergroup conflict: the male warrior hypothesis". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 367 (1589): 670–679. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0301. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   3260849 . PMID   22271783.
  102. 1 2 Melissa M. McDonald, Carlos David Navarrete and Mark Van Vugt (2012). "Evolution and the psychology of intergroup conflict: the male warrior hypothesis". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 367 (1589): 670–679. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0301. PMC   3260849 . PMID   22271783.
  103. ↑ Eamonn Carrabine; Paul Iganski; Maggy Lee (2004). Criminology: A Sociological Introduction. Psychology Press. p. 88. ISBN   978-0-415-28167-6. Statistics repeatedly show that many more men than women commit crimes. Indeed, as Richard Collier notes, 'most crimes would remain unimaginable without the presence of men (Collier, 1998; see also Jefferson, 2002).
  104. ↑ Jeffery T. Walker; Sean Maddan (2013). Understanding Statistics for the Social Sciences, Criminal Justice, and Criminology. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 99. ISBN   978-1-4496-3403-2. [...] it is well supported in research that more men than women commit crimes.
  105. ↑ Archer J (2006). "Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis" (PDF). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 30 (3): 319–45. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007. PMID   16483890. S2CID   26405251. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 9, 2016.
  106. ↑ Dabbs, J. M.; Frady, R. L.; Carr, T. S.; Besch, N. F. (1987). "Saliva testosterone and criminal violence in young adult prison inmates". Psychosomatic Medicine. 49 (2): 174–182. doi:10.1097/00006842-198703000-00007. PMID   3575604. S2CID   39757740.
  107. ↑ Dabbs, James; Hargrove, Marian F. (1997). "Age, Testosterone, and Behavior Among Female Prison Inmates". Psychosomatic Medicine. 59 (5): 477–480. doi:10.1097/00006842-199709000-00003. PMID   9316179. S2CID   19900226.
  108. ↑ Archer J (2006). "Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis" (PDF). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 30 (3): 319–45. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007. PMID   16483890. S2CID   26405251. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 9, 2016.
  109. ↑ Ellis L, Hoskin AW (2015). "The evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory of criminal behavior expanded". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 24: 61–74. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.002.
  110. ↑ Hoskin AW, Ellis L (2015). "Fetal Testosterone and Criminality: Test of Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory". Criminology. 53 (1): 54–73. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12056.
  111. 1 2 Henslin, James M. (2001). Essentials of Sociology. Taylor & Francis. pp. 65–67, 240. ISBN   978-0-536-94185-5.
  112. ↑ Sanderson, Stephen K. (2001). The Evolution of Human Sociality . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p.  198. ISBN   978-0-8476-9534-8.
  113. ↑ Macionis, John J.; Plummer, Ken (2000). Sociology: A Global Introduction. Harlow: Prentice Hall. p. 347. ISBN   978-0-13-040737-5.
  114. 1 2 Coney, Sandra (1994). The menopause industry: how the medical establishment exploits women. Alameda, California: Hunter House. ISBN   978-0-89793-161-8.
  115. ↑ "How the appliance boom moved more women into the workforce". Penn Today.
  116. ↑ de V. Cavalcanti, Tiago V.; Tavares, José (2008). "Assessing the "Engines of Liberation": Home Appliances and Female Labor Force Participation". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 90 (1): 81–88. ISSN   0034-6535.
  117. ↑ "Taming the Cycle: How Does the Pill Work?". Science in the News. Harvard Medical School. 15 March 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
  118. 1 2 Mitchell, Juliet (1974). "The cultural revolution". Psychoanalysis and feminism. New York: Pantheon Books. p. 409. ISBN   978-0-394-47472-4.
  119. ↑ Eherenreich, Barbara (1992). "Life without father". In McDowell, Linda; Pringle, Rosemary (eds.). Defining women: Social institutions and gender divisions . London: Polity/Open University. ISBN   978-0-7456-0979-9.
  120. ↑ Cockburn, Cynthia (1991). Brothers: male dominance and technological change. London Concord, Massachusetts: Pluto. ISBN   978-0-7453-0583-7.
  121. ↑ Lacan, Jaques (2001) [1977]. "The mirror stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience (1949)". In Sheridan, Alan (ed.). Écrits: a selection. London: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-25392-5.
  122. ↑ Mulvey, Laura (2009). "The Oedipus myth: beyond the riddles of the Sphinx". Visual and other pleasures (2nd ed.). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire England New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 177–200. ISBN   978-0-230-57646-9.
  123. ↑ Butler, Judith (2000). Antigone's claim: kinship between life and death . New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN   978-0-231-11895-8.
  124. ↑ Dalton, Penelope (2008). "Complex family relations". Family and other relations: a thesis examining the extent to which family relationships shape the relations of art (PhD thesis). University of Plymouth. hdl:10026.1/758.
  125. ↑ Dalton, Pen (2001). "Theoretical perspectives" (PDF). The gendering of art education: modernism, identity, and critical feminism. Buckingham England Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Open University. pp. 9–32. ISBN   978-0-335-19649-4.
  126. ↑ Hofstede, Geert; Hofstede, Gert Jan (2005). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-143959-6.
  127. ↑ Tierney, Margaret (1995). "Negotiating a software career: informal work practices and 'the lads' in a software installation". In Gill, Rosalind; Grint, Keith (eds.). The gender-technology relation: contemporary theory and research. London Bristol, Pennsylvania: Taylor & Francis. pp. 192–209. ISBN   978-0-7484-0161-1.
  128. ↑ Roper, Michael (1994). Masculinity and the British organization man since 1945. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-825693-9.
  129. ↑ Firestone, Shulamith (1970). The dialectic of sex: the case for feminist revolution . New York: Quill. ISBN   978-0-688-12359-8.

Further reading

:Cited in:
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.