Feminism and media

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The socio-political movements and ideologies of feminism have found expression in various media. These media include newspaper, literature, radio, television, social media, film, and video games. They have been essential to the success of many feminist movements.

Contents

Susan B. Anthony, one of the authors of The Revolution Susan B. Anthony cph.3b35364.jpg
Susan B. Anthony, one of the authors of The Revolution

History

The history of feminism dates back to the 19th century and continues through present day. Feminism can be broken down into three distinct sections: first-wave, second-wave, and third-wave.

The terms "suffragette" and "feminist" refer to different movements, particularly in the early 1900s. Suffragists aimed to make it possible for women to vote in elections, but reinforced the notion that women should remain domestic (caring for the home, family, and community). Feminists, on the other hand, not only supported suffrage, but also were advocates for women to be entitled to the "same level of participation, economic independence, and social and sexual freedoms as men" (Finn, 2012). [1]

First-wave feminism

First-wave feminism refers to the feminist movement of the 19th and early 20th century. At this time, women had little control over their lives. Generally, they were housewives who were uneducated and possessed no property or economic rights. Their lives were overwhelmingly limited creating discontent in the context of being limited to roles such as motherhood or wife-hood. [2]

Feminists of the time (mostly middle-class white women) focused on the legal disabilities of women, especially women's suffrage. The first wave began at the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, in which Elizabeth Cady Stanton drafted the Seneca Falls Declaration. The Declaration outlined the feminist's political strategies and philosophies. Suffragists worked together to attract more women to their cause, they went against traditional methods such as propaganda and lobbying that were previously learned during Radical Reconstruction and the abolitionist movements. [2]

The first-wave was fueled by The Second Great Awakening, which allowed women to have more leadership roles in society, and the abolition and temperance movements. Women were generally excluded from these movements, prompting suffragists to demand women's suffrage. However, not all suffragists considered themselves feminists; they were eager for the right to vote, but not in favor of gender equality. Suffragists and feminists had their first success when New York passed the Married Women's Property Act in 1860, which legalized property ownership for women. They also had success when Congress ratified the 19th Amendment in 1920, allowing women the right to vote.

First-wave feminism use of media

The feminists' message during first-wave feminism was primarily spread through newspaper and other printed media such as pamphlets and bulletins.

Second-wave feminism

Feminists attempted to draw attention by forming women-only organizations, such as the National Organization for Women (NOW), and publishing papers that advocated women's equality, such as "The BITCH Manifesto". Radical feminists promoted the idea that "gender is an absolute rather than a relative category". [3] An early depiction of this view includes Valerie Solanas's, S.C.U.M Manifesto written in 1967. [3] The major legislative focus of the wave was on the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which guaranteed social equality regardless of sex. The ERA made it to Congress for ratification, but failed to be ratified. The second-wave is said to have ended in the early 1980s with the discussion of sexuality and pornography, issues that were discussed during the third wave. With more advanced technology in the second wave, feminists used newspapers, television, radio, and published papers to spread their message.

Prior to 1960, both men and women accepted the reality of traditional gender and family roles. But, when the second-wave feminism began, women challenged these roles both at home and at work. (Beck, 1998). [4] Betty Friedan's 1963 book, The Feminine Mystique, has been said to have spurred the second-wave movement due to its discussion of the unhappiness of (white, middle-class) women "with their limited gender roles and their sense of isolation in the suburban nuclear family" (Mendes, 2011). [5]

Second-wave feminism use of media

It was also during this period (around the 1960s and 1970s) that women's portrayal on television was changing, in part due to the eventual release of "female sexual and political energy" (Douglas, 1994). [6] Before this time, women's sexuality could be considered a "taboo" topic, creating for a revolutionary change in the portrayal of women on television. Examples of these different female roles include but are not limited to: Morticia Addams (The Addams Family), Samantha Stevens (Bewitched), and Mary Richards (The Mary Tyler Moore Show). All of the aforementioned women were either magical in some way and/or a strong female character, which differed from the more stereotypical-housewife roles from the 1950s. In addition, many roles in this era portrayed the woman as independent, thus not needing or seeking out a man.

Third-wave feminism

Third-wave feminism started beginning in the early 1990s and continues into the present. This movement grew as a response of the supposed failures and criticism of the second-wave movement. The goals of the movement were broadened from the second wave to focus on ideas such as lesbian theory, abolishing gender roles and stereotypes, and defending sex work, pornography, and sex-positivity. The movement has a focus on lesbian and African American women as distinct from traditional feminists, and it has weakened many traditional concepts, such as those notions of gender, heteronormativity, and "universal womanhood". This conversation on social media on womanhood has strengthened the understanding of the "economy of the celebrity". (Keller)

Third-wave feminism use of media

Third-wave feminism depends mostly on social media to spread its goals. Social media outlets such as Twitter and Facebook are consistently covered in feminist messages, and hashtag campaigns are steadily spread to convey feminist ideas (#heforshe, #yesallwomen, #whyistayed). Many television shows also feature dominant, strong women and encourage the idea that women are equal to men ( Nashville , Orange Is the New Black , and Buffy the Vampire Slayer ). [7]

Press (2011) [8] wrote that third-wave feminism focuses more on women's sexual freedom, which has come a long way since the time of second-wave feminism. Disparities such as the "orgasm gap" still exist (Armstrong, England & Fogarty, 2010), [9] which describes the sexual inequalities between men and women involving sexual gratification. The media also continues to oppose the existence of women's sexual freedom, noted with the continued use of the word "slut" as well as the emphasized importance of virginity, which is often displayed in popular culture.

Mass media

Though most journalists aim to create an objective view of their subjects, feminism has long been portrayed in a negative light. Feminism's portrayal is fueled by the idea that the media seems to lean toward opposition; pinning women again men creates the mostly negative roles women become portrayed by. [10] A study by Lind and Saio (2006) [11] revealed that feminists rarely appear in the media and are often demonized. They are often portrayed as different from "regular" women, and are not associated with day-to-day activities, but rather, public activities and events. Feminists are also not often portrayed as victims and are more frequently associated with the women's movement and their goals compared to regular women (meaning if a woman isn't a labeled "feminist" she often isn't associated with the movement, despite being female). Creedon (1993) [12] wrote, "feminists are constantly framed as deviant sexually, a bunch of man-haters out to destroy 'family values.'" In the media, the term "feminism" is often opposed to the term "family", leading to the idea that feminists can't be family women. This negative portrayal over the decades has led many young women rejecting the idea of feminism, in part due to feminists being labeled as "man bashers". Other labels associated with feminism include: "bubblehead", "Amazons", "angries", "radical", and "hairy" (Jones, 1992). [13] Most media decision-makers are male, although women are beginning to enter the field of journalism. [10] The contemporary women's movement has predominantly been ignored through mainstream media, leaving only room for a few high-profile exceptions. [10] The Miss America pageant of 1968 was one of the first high-profile cases to be publicized. Although to the feminist movement's dismay, the coverage was both distorted and sensationalized. [10] During the occurrence of the event, the term "bra-burner" label for women unearthed itself. [10] The practice of labeling feminists with derogatory terms has been a method to silence its supporters and promote fear of speaking out.

Flora Davis (1991) [14] wrote in her book, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America, that the media coverage on the feminist movement wasn't necessarily negative, as it was the media that spotlighted the movement in 1969. In addition, Davis notes that the media is the source that publicized the movement's issues, heroines, and activities and allowed the movement to reach individuals it may have not otherwise.

On screen media

Social media

In recent years, social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook have led to widespread discussion on issues ranging from domestic abuse to street harassment, catcalling, and abortion. [15] In 2012, feminists in Turkey created Facebook groups to organize and mobilize protests and marches against legislation of a nationwide abortion ban. Feminists in other parts of the European Union began to take notice and promoted the issue in their respective Facebook groups and the legislation was eventually dropped from the legislative agenda. [16]

In the wake of the Ray Rice domestic abuse scandal, in which video evidence showed the Baltimore Ravens running back knocking his then fiancée, Janay Palmer, unconscious, writer Beverly Gooden started the Twitter hashtag #WhyIStayed. This hashtag highlighted personal experiences of herself and other women who stayed in abusive relationships. This quickly spawned subsequent hashtags including #WhyILeft which many used to describe the final incident of abuse or reason for leaving. [17]

Feminist use of Twitter

In 2013, the Representation Project created a mobile app called #NotBuyingIt which allows users to connect with each other and quickly tweet or otherwise engage sexist media ranging from advertisements to soundbites and quotes from public figures. It is often used during football season where Super Bowl ads are notoriously deemed sexist. In the aftermath of the University of California-Santa Barbara shootings, thousands of women across the internet began tweeting experiences of sexism experienced in their daily lives with the hashtag #YesAllWomen. In June 2014, as a response to the US Supreme court's decision in Burwell v. Hobby Lobby , there were thousands of tweets containing #HobbyLobby, #JoinTheDissent and #NotMyBossBusiness expressing emotions ranging from disdain to rage at the Supreme Court's decision to allow employers not to cover certain contraceptives on a religious basis. [18] According to Matthew Slutsky at Change.org, social media has opened the forums on these issues to not only feminists and other activists, but to anyone who wants to discuss them. [19]

#MeToo movement

Sign from the 2019 Women's March supporting the #MeToo movement. "Me Too." Mother Earth (46093919894).jpg
Sign from the 2019 Women's March supporting the #MeToo movement.

In 2017, actress Alyssa Milano brought the #MeToo movement to light when she asked her Twitter followers to reply with #metoo if they had experienced sexual assault. [20] While Milano's actions have received backlash for taking credit for a movement that was started by an African American women the movement has stood to expose sexual harassment and assault within the work place. Following the social media popularity it was reported that 30% of women and 4% of men reported experiencing sexual assault within the U.S. academic medical field. [21] While Milano brought popularity to the movement following allegations against Harvey Weinstein she did not create the movement or the phrase. Activist Tarana Burke originally started the movement in 2007. [20] She started using the term "me too" to show solidarity with girls and women who had and were experiencing sexual assault. [20] This movement reached all aspects of life in the United States including Hollywood, politics, education, news outlets, and even agriculture. The #MeToo movement has allowed not only a shift or norms but a shift in policies, education, and trainings in order to create better reporting systems and prevent sexual misconduct from occurring.

Emma Watson

In addition, celebrities such as Emma Watson have also taken a pro-feminist stance through social media. In 2014, the UN Women's Ambassador stated, "I am from Britain and think it is right that as a woman I am paid the same as my male counterparts. I think it is right that I should be able to make decisions about my own body. I think it is right that women be involved on my behalf in the policies and decision-making of my country. I think it is right that socially I am afforded the same respect as men. But sadly I can say that there is no one country in the world where all women can expect to receive these rights." [22] Her speech also goes into depth about the negative connotation the word feminist has because of social media and how we as a society can take a stand for gender equality.

Studies into political campaigning have proven that women tweet more aggressively than their male counterparts, as platforms such as Twitter allow women to bypass traditional media and bring attention to their own raw narrative. [23] In 2018 the use of feminist social media came to the forefront in the referendum to appeal the abortion laws in Ireland. Grassroots campaign groups, like TogetherForYes, strategized their social media to campaign and influence a positive "yes" vote to amend abortion laws. [24] When tackling these feminist issues, social media can bring somewhat traditional private issues into the public, an exposure that can encourage positive change as emotions are mobilized across an online network, reaching people who can not only vote, but also those who can encourage voters, to support their women counterparts. [25]

Film

Film is an aspect of media that contributes to the socialization of citizens. [26] Feminist themes in film have become more commonplace within modern history and feminist film theory was born out of several disciplines of psychoanalysis conjoining with the emerging film industry and the views of sexuality and gender roles. [27]

In her 1970 essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema", Laura Mulvey diagnosed two major issues within Hollywood that she felt allowed for an inaccurate portrayal of the feminine experience up until that time. [28] [29] [30] Her first claim, that "men and women are differentially positioned by cinema", [30] states that women are positioned in roles as inferior or subservient to men. The lead roles or main action roles are normally held by men. She argued that this perpetuates the stereotypes that females are incapable and that males are dominating and the leaders of the group. The second claim is that women are portrayed in film as "objects for masculine desire and fetishistic gazing", [30] writing that this relates directly to the sexuality of females and that the prevalence of a romantic element to a female's role shows that beyond a romantic or sexual element, women in the plot line are essentially worthless. [30] Sophie Mayer's 2016 publication Political Animals: The New Feminist Cinema focuses on feminist film theory in the 21st century and argues that many of the same issues pointed out in Mulvey's essay continue. [27] Mayer focuses instead on other elements of film beside plot to view through a feminist lens. [27] She also looks at other cinematic elements such as costuming that expand the volume of works that can be reviewed with feminist film theory. [27]

Video games

Video games have become a new form of media that derives from other media, such as books, films, and music. It is a new model that can interact with old forms of media and then create new contents or means of entertainment and interaction. [31] With the development of video games, female characters play a significant role in the gaming world. However, most of the female characters are usually being objectified by video games. Especially, there are a large number of female characters who are objectified as sex workers in commercial video games. [32] Yao et al. state that female heroines in action-based video games often wear sexy outfits barely covering their bodies. [33] Moreover, Yao et al. also indicate that sexualized female characters may prime males' thoughts about sex and encourage them to view women as objects, fueling belief in negative female stereotypes. [33] As a result, objectifying females has severely affected gender equality, and it also becomes a method that game companies use to attract male players. Through the development of video games, males have always been the main customers, so game companies do not intend to consider the feelings of female players. Bonnie Ruberg states that the reason for having discrimination against female characters is not because of the erotic labor but the devaluation behavior that presents in the games. [32] Moreover, in her article "Representing sex workers in video games: feminisms, fantasies of exceptionalism, and the value of erotic labor", she criticizes the game's description and portrayal of female characters, and she also promotes that video games need a diversity of feminisms.

Ms. is a feminist focused magazine Ms. magazine Cover - Spring 2004.jpg
Ms. is a feminist focused magazine

Though hardcopy newspapers do not carry the readership they once did, they played a historically important role in the circulation of feminist ideas within Western societies. Newspapers were the dominant form of mass media throughout the 1800s and early 1900s, beginning to decline only after the proliferation of radio and television news. Feminist newspapers allowed women and their group interests to voice their opinion to a larger audience with more consistency and accuracy than word of mouth, helping lay the groundwork for organized movements to take hold. Throughout the 1800s, several feminist newspapers were started with varying degrees of success. [34] The German feminist newspaper founded by Mathilde Franziska Anneke, Frauenzeitung, managed to produce a single issue. In contrast, Louise Otto-Peters's Frauen-Zeitung, a weekly German feminist newspaper, lasted from April 1849 to at least the middle of 1852. The readership and lifespan of feminist newspapers varies widely, but there are several examples that are known for their contributions to the cause of feminism through this form of mass media.[ citation needed ]

La Voix des Femmes

La Voix des Femmes (English: The Voice of Women) was founded by Eugénie Niboyet and remained in print from 1848 to 1852. It was the first French feminist daily newspaper and enjoyed great success. Its decline was due to the rise of conservatism under Napoleon III. [35] In 1917, Colette Reynaud and Louise Bodin launched a weekly French feminist newspaper reusing the name, La Voix des femmes ; [36] it ceased publication in 1937. [37]

La Fronde

La Fronde (English: The Sling) was another French feminist daily newspaper created by Marguerite Durand. It ran from 9 December 1897, to March 1905. It was run and written solely by women. It notably achieved a readership of 50,000 in Paris, before financial problems led to its closure.

Courage

A group of women from the Kreuzberg Women's Centre created the German feminist newspaper Courage in 1976. The paper published many articles on taboo subjects that were issues for feminists, such as abortion, sexual violence, and forced prostitution. The newspaper declared bankruptcy in 1984 because of the loss of readership due to negative coverage from male press and competing feminist papers.

The Revolution

The Revolution was an American weekly newspaper created by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton as a reaction to the National Woman Suffrage Association's call to put women's suffrage on hold, to deal with the issue of African American male suffrage. [38] The establishment of the newspaper in January 1868 helped keep the women's suffrage movement alive during the post-civil war era. However, Anthony's ideological commitments, including her opposition to "quack medicine" and "Restellism" (a reference to Madame Restell, a 19th-century British-born American abortionist), limited available income for the newspaper. [39] Bankruptcy was declared in 1870, and Anthony shouldered the $10,000 debt.

Media Directory of Women Experts

The Independent Women's Forum published the Media Directory of Women Experts as a way of providing journalists with names of women that could give conservative opinions on topics.

Related Research Articles

Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that societies prioritize the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.

Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other social divisions such as in race, class, and sexual orientation. The ideology and movement emerged in the 1960s.

Liberal feminism, also called mainstream feminism, is a main branch of feminism defined by its focus on achieving gender equality through political and legal reform within the framework of liberal democracy and informed by a human rights perspective. It is often considered culturally progressive and economically center-right to center-left. As the oldest of the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought, liberal feminism has its roots in 19th century first-wave feminism seeking recognition of women as equal citizens, focusing particularly on women's suffrage and access to education, the effort associated with 19th century liberalism and progressivism. Liberal feminism "works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into that structure." Liberal feminism places great emphasis on the public world, especially laws, political institutions, education and working life, and considers the denial of equal legal and political rights as the main obstacle to equality. As such liberal feminists have worked to bring women into the political mainstream. Liberal feminism is inclusive and socially progressive, while broadly supporting existing institutions of power in liberal democratic societies, and is associated with centrism and reformism. Liberal feminism tends to be adopted by white middle-class women who do not disagree with the current social structure; Zhang and Rios found that liberal feminism with its focus on equality is viewed as the dominant and "default" form of feminism. Liberal feminism actively supports men's involvement in feminism and both women and men have always been active participants in the movement; progressive men had an important role alongside women in the struggle for equal political rights since the movement was launched in the 19th century.

This is an index of articles related to the issue of feminism, women's liberation, the women's movement, and women's rights.

The history of feminism comprises the narratives of the movements and ideologies which have aimed at equal rights for women. While feminists around the world have differed in causes, goals, and intentions depending on time, culture, and country, most Western feminist historians assert that all movements that work to obtain women's rights should be considered feminist movements, even when they did not apply the term to themselves. Some other historians limit the term "feminist" to the modern feminist movement and its progeny, and use the label "protofeminist" to describe earlier movements.

Second-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity that began in the early 1960s and lasted roughly two decades, ending with the feminist sex wars in the early 1980s and being replaced by third-wave feminism in the early 1990s. It occurred throughout the Western world and aimed to increase women's equality by building on the feminist gains of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Third-wave feminism</span> Feminist movement, 1990s–2020s

Third-wave feminism is a feminist movement that began in the early 1990s, prominent in the decades prior to the fourth wave. Grounded in the civil-rights advances of the second wave, Gen X third-wave feminists born in the 1960s and 1970s embraced diversity and individualism in women, and sought to redefine what it meant to be a feminist. The third wave saw the emergence of new feminist currents and theories, such as intersectionality, sex positivity, vegetarian ecofeminism, transfeminism, and postmodern feminism. According to feminist scholar Elizabeth Evans, the "confusion surrounding what constitutes third-wave feminism is in some respects its defining feature."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist sociology</span> Subdiscipline of sociology

Feminist sociology is an interdisciplinary exploration of gender and power throughout society. Here, it uses conflict theory and theoretical perspectives to observe gender in its relation to power, both at the level of face-to-face interaction and reflexivity within social structures at large. Focuses include sexual orientation, race, economic status, and nationality.

Black feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses on the African-American woman's experiences and recognizes the intersectionality of racism and sexism. Black feminism philosophy centers on the idea that "Black women are inherently valuable, that [Black women's] liberation is a necessity not as an adjunct to somebody else's but because of our need as human persons for autonomy."

Antifeminism, also spelled anti-feminism, is opposition to feminism. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, antifeminists opposed particular policy proposals for women's rights, such as the right to vote, educational opportunities, property rights, and access to birth control. In the mid and late 20th century, antifeminists often opposed the abortion-rights movement.

Lipstick feminism is a variety of feminism that seeks to embrace traditional concepts of femininity, including the sexual power of women, alongside traditional feminist ideas. The concept emerged within the third-wave as a response to ideals created by previous movements, where women felt that they could not both be feminine and a feminist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminism in the United States</span> History of the feminist movement in the USA

Feminism is aimed at defining, establishing, and defending a state of equal political, economic, cultural, and social rights for women. It has had a massive influence on American politics. Feminism in the United States is often divided chronologically into first-wave, second-wave, third-wave, and fourth-wave feminism.

The feminist movement has affected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; more equitable pay with men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy ; and the right to own property.

Feminism has affected culture in many ways, and has famously been theorized in relation to culture by Angela McRobbie, Laura Mulvey and others. Timothy Laurie and Jessica Kean have argued that "one of [feminism's] most important innovations has been to seriously examine the ways women receive popular culture, given that so much pop culture is made by and for men." This is reflected in a variety of forms, including literature, music, film and other screen cultures.

Networked feminism is a phenomenon that can be described as the online mobilization and coordination of feminists in response to sexist, misogynistic, racist, and other discriminatory acts against minority groups. This phenomenon covers all possible definitions of what feminist movements may entail, as there have been multiple waves of feminist movements and there is no central authority to control what the term "feminism" claims to be. While one may hold a different opinion from another on the definition of "feminism", all those who believe in these movements and ideologies share the same goal of dismantling the current patriarchal social structure, where men hold primary power and higher social privileges above all others. Networked feminism is not spearheaded by one singular women's group. Rather, it is the manifestation of feminists' ability to leverage the internet to make traditionally unrepresented voices and viewpoints heard. Networked feminism occurs when social network sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Tumblr are used as a catalyst in the promotion of feminist equality and in response to sexism. Users of these social media websites promote the advancement of feminism using tools such as viral Facebook groups and hashtags. These tools are used to push gender equality and call attention to those promoting anything otherwise. Online feminist work is a new engine of contemporary feminism. With the possibility of connecting and communicating all around the world through the Internet, no other form of activism in history has brought together and empowered so many people to take action on a singular issue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist movement</span> Series of political campaigns for reforms on feminist issues

The feminist movement, also known as the women's movement, refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for radical and liberal reforms on women's issues created by the inequality between men and women. Such issues are women's liberation, reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual harassment, and sexual violence. The movement's priorities have expanded since its beginning in the 1800s, and vary among nations and communities. Priorities range from opposition to female genital mutilation in one country, to opposition to the glass ceiling in another.

Gender plays a role in mass media and is represented within media platforms. These platforms are not limited to film, radio, television, advertisement, social media, and video games. Initiatives and resources exist to promote gender equality and reinforce women's empowerment in the media industry and representations. For example, UNESCO, in cooperation with the International Federation of Journalists, elaborated the Gender-sensitive Indicators for Media contributing to gender equality and women's empowerment in all forms of media.

Fourth-wave feminism is a feminist movement that began around the early 2010s and is characterized by a focus on the empowerment of women, the use of Internet tools, and intersectionality. The fourth wave seeks greater gender equality by focusing on gendered norms and the marginalization of women in society.

Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals wholly or partly due to their gender or sex. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles. Gender inequality in Nigeria is influenced by different cultures and beliefs. In most parts of Nigeria, women are considered subordinate to their male counterparts, especially in Northern Nigeria as well as in other sectors including the Nigeria music industry, politics, and education sector. It is generally believed that women are best suited as home keepers.

White feminism is a term which is used to describe expressions of feminism which are perceived as focusing on white women but are perceived as failing to address the existence of distinct forms of oppression faced by ethnic minority women and women lacking other privileges. Whiteness is crucial in structuring the lived experiences of white women across a variety of contexts. The term has been used to label and criticize theories that are perceived as focusing solely on gender-based inequality. Primarily used as a derogatory label, "white feminism" is typically used to reproach a perceived failure to acknowledge and integrate the intersection of other identity attributes into a broader movement which struggles for equality on more than one front. In white feminism, the oppression of women is analyzed through a single-axis framework, consequently erasing the identity and experiences of ethnic minority women the space. The term has also been used to refer to feminist theories perceived to focus more specifically on the experience of white, cisgender, heterosexual, able-bodied women, and in which the experiences of women without these characteristics are excluded or marginalized. This criticism has predominantly been leveled against the first waves of feminism which were seen as centered around the empowerment of white middle-class women in Western societies.

References

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  2. 1 2 DuBois, Ellen (1975). "The Radicalism of the Woman Suffrage Movement: Notes toward the Reconstruction of Nineteenth-Century Feminism". Feminist Studies. 3 (1/2): 63–71. doi:10.2307/3518956. JSTOR   3518956.
  3. 1 2 Echols, Alice (1983). "Cultural Feminism: Feminist Capitalism and the Anti-Pornography Movement". Social Text. 7 (7): 34–53. doi:10.2307/466453. JSTOR   466453.
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  9. ↑ Armstrong, Elizabeth A., England, Paula and Fogarty, Alison C. K. (2010) “Orgasm in college hookups and relationships”. In Families As They Really Are, Edited by: Risman, B. J. 362–377. New York: Norton.
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  13. ↑ Jones, Ann (1992, January/February). "Backlash and beyond". Ms. , 58–60.
  14. ↑ Davis, Flora (1991). Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960. New York: Simon & Schuster.
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  16. ↑ Eslen-Ziya, Hande (2013). "Social Media and Turkish Feminism: New Resources for Social Activism". Feminist Media Studies. 13 (5): 860–870. doi:10.1080/14680777.2013.838369. S2CID   145673889.
  17. ↑ Grinburg, Emanuella (9 September 2014). "Meredith Vieira explains #WhyIStayed". CNN. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  18. ↑ Springer, Aisha. "#HobbyLobby: Feminist Twitter Responds to Hobby Lobby Ruling". HashtagFeminism.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  19. ↑ Bennett, Jessica. "Behold the Power of #Hashtag Feminism". Time . Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  20. 1 2 3 Tippett, E. (2018). The Legal Implications of the MeToo Movement. Minnesota Law Review.
  21. ↑ Lee, Bun-Hee (16 May 2018). "#Me Too Movement; It Is Time That We All Act and Participate in Transformation". Psychiatry Investigation. 15 (5): 433-433. doi : 10.30773/pi.2018.04.30
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  23. ↑ Evans and Clark, Heather and Jennifer (2016). "'You Tweet Like a Girl!': How Female Candidates Campaign on Twitter". American Politics Research. 44 (2): 326. doi:10.1177/1532673X15597747. S2CID   155159860.
  24. ↑ Drazkiewicz and Strong, Elia and Thomas (2020). "Repealing Ireland's Eighth Amendment: abortion rights and democracy today" (PDF). Social Anthropology. 28 (3): 561–584. doi:10.1111/1469-8676.12914. S2CID   225319044. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  25. ↑ Fischer, Clara (2020). "Feminists Redraw Public and Private Spheres: Abortion, Vulnerability, and the Affective Campaign to Repeal the Eighth Amendment" (PDF). Journal of Women in Culture & Society. 45 (4): 985–1010. doi:10.1086/707999. S2CID   225086418.
  26. ↑ Pautz, Michelle C. (12 March 2015). "Films can have a major influence on how people view government". American Politics and Policy Blog. USAPP. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Mayne, Judith (Fall 2016). "Feminisms: Diversity, Difference and Multiplicity in Contemporary Film Cultures". Film Quarterly. 70 (4): 120–123. doi:10.1177/1350506816665724. S2CID   151725963.
  28. ↑ Mulvey, Laura (1975). "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema". Feminisms. pp. 438–448. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-14428-0_27 (inactive 29 April 2024). ISBN   978-0-333-69099-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
  29. ↑ Freeland, Cynthia A. Feminist Film Theory. Encyclopedia of Aesthetics: Oxford University Press.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Freeland, Cynthia A. (3 April 2018). "Feminist Film Theory". Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
  31. ↑ "10.4 The Impact of Video Games on Culture | Media and Culture". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  32. 1 2 Ruberg, Bonnie (3 April 2019). "Representing sex workers in video games: feminisms, fantasies of exceptionalism, and the value of erotic labor". Feminist Media Studies. 19 (3): 313–330. doi:10.1080/14680777.2018.1477815. ISSN   1468-0777. S2CID   149668572.
  33. 1 2 Yao, Mike Z.; Mahood, Chad; Linz, Daniel (2010). "Sexual Priming, Gender Stereotyping, and Likelihood to Sexually Harass: Examining the Cognitive Effects of Playing a Sexually-Explicit Video Game". Sex Roles. 62 (1): 77–88. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9695-4. ISSN   0360-0025. PMC   2807025 . PMID   20098511.
  34. ↑ Joeres, Ruth-Ellen. "Frauen-Zeitung". Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions. Ohio University. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  35. ↑ Moon, Joan. "The Feminist Press in France". Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions. Ohio University. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  36. ↑ Zweig, Stefan; Rolland, Romain (1 July 2014). Correspondance 1910-1919. Albin Michel. ISBN   978-2-226-30233-5. OCLC   937861267.
  37. ↑ Schallwig, Julien Chuzeville, Noémie (21 October 2022). "REYNAUD Colette". Eliza, Colette (in French). Maitron/Editions de l'Atelier. Retrieved 10 January 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ↑ "The Revolution". Accessible Archives. Accessible Archives Inc. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  39. ↑ Clark, Cat. "Susan B. Anthony's Revolution". Feminists For Life . Feminists for Life of America. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
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