Internalized sexism

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Internalized sexism is a form of sexist behavior and attitudes enacted by women toward themselves or other women and girls. [1] [2] Internalized sexism is a form of internalized oppression, which "consists of oppressive practices that continue to make the rounds even when members of the oppressor group are not present." [1] Internalized sexism can have a range of effects on women and girls such as problems with mental health and body image. [2] Modes of internalization of sexism include early childhood inculturation and consumption of media, especially of celebrity and entertainment news. [2]

Contents

Effects

Internalized sexism has the potential to lead to body issues and a lack of self-confidence. [3] It is a major setback in resolving issues of sexism as a whole. [4] Ties to psychological distress such as anxious, depressive or somatic symptoms, have been identified as results of internalized sexism. [5] [6] Possible effects can be depression and suicidal impulses. [7]

Additionally, studies have found connections between sexual objectification as a result of internalized sexism and body shame, sexual objectification, and disordered eating. [8] Internalized sexism also plays a role in lowered academic goals [9] and diminished job performance. [10]

Types

Internalized misogyny

Misogyny is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. Women who experience internalized misogyny may express it through minimizing the value of women, mistrusting women, and showing gender bias in favor of men. [5] Women, after observing societal beliefs which demean the value and skills of women repeatedly, eventually internalize those misogynistic beliefs and apply them to themselves and other women. [1] Internalized misogyny can be enacted on others through assertions of incompetence, construction of women as competitors, construction of women as objects, and invalidation and derogation of others or oneself. [1] The implications of internalized misogyny include psychological disorders such as depression, eating disorders, low self-esteem, and less social support among women. [5]

The Internalized Misogyny Scale (IMS) was created to assess one's internalized misogyny. [11] It consists of 17 items measuring three factors: devaluation of women, distrust of women, and gender bias in favor of men. [11] Its validity has been assessed and supported through multiple studies. [12] [13] [14] [5] Internalized misogyny assessed via the IMS has been found to be related to lower self-esteem, less social support, and more psychological distress among women around the world, [15] and to negative body image, depression, low self-esteem, and less psychosexual adjustment among lesbian and bisexual women. [11] The distrust of women subscale includes statements such as 'It is generally safer not to trust women too much' and 'When it comes down to it a lot of women are deceitful.' [11] The devaluation of women subscale includes statements such as 'Women seek to gain power by getting control over men' and 'women exaggerate problems they have at work.' [11] The valuing men over women subscale includes items such as 'I prefer to work for a male boss' and 'The intellectual leadership of a community should be largely in the hands of men.' [11]

Internalized misogyny may manifest differently depending on one's social and political identities; for instance, internalized misogynoir has been identified as a type of internalized oppression which results from the combination of internalized racism and internalized misogyny. [16] Similarly, lesbians may face the combined effects of internalized misogyny and internalized homophobia as a result of their intersectional identities. [11]

Internalized heterosexism

Dawn M. Szymanski and colleagues write:

Heterosexism, a term developed within the LGB rights movement and modeled on political concepts, refers to an ideological system that operates on individual, institutional, and cultural levels to stigmatize, deny, and denigrate any nonheterosexual way of being. [17]

Internalized heterosexism is generally defined as the internalization of assumptions, negative attitudes and stigma regarding homosexuality by individuals who do not identify within the heteronormative spectrum and/or are categorized as sexual minorities to varying degrees. [17] Internalized heterosexism is a manifestation of internalized sexism that primarily affects sexual minority populations (composed of people who identify lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, or other), however, it can also affect heterosexual populations by dictating how they interact with and relate to non-heterosexual peoples. This phenomenon manifests when sexual minorities begin to adopt rigid heteronormative values into their worldviews.[ citation needed ]

Examples of these heteronormative values are fundamentalist religious doctrines that condemn non-heterosexual orientations and activities, concepts of masculinity and manhood that emphasize restricted emotionality (scholastically referred to as RE), or restrictive affectionate behavior between men (scholastically referred to as RABBM). [7] The internalization of heteronormativity often create gender role conflicts (GRCs) for people whose actions fall outside the parameters of acceptable cultural norms that promote unrealistic and constricting ideas about what it means to be a man or a woman in modern society. One of the most common consequences of internalized heterosexism is intense depression fueled by self-loathing and sexual repression. [7]

Toxic femininity, tradwives, and marianismo

Gender-studies scholar Brenda R. Weber uses the term toxic femininity for a code of conformity and social pressure to rigid feminine gender roles, reinforced through (sometimes unconscious) beliefs, such as viewing oneself as unworthy, and imperatives to be consistently pleasant, accommodating, and compliant. According to Weber, such beliefs and expectations "[suggest] there is no a priori female self" apart from the needs and desires of men and boys. Weber associates these norms with "usually white, mostly middle-class, relentlessly heterosexual, and typically politically conservative" expectations of femininity. [18]

In her book Sisters in Hate: American Women and White Extremism, journalist Seyward Darby discusses the onset of the tradwife aesthetic (a neologism of "traditional wife" or "traditional housewife"), depicted by Darby through interviews with women who self-identify as far-right extremists. [19] Darby discusses with three women their personal view of themselves as docile, passive, and submissive in a male-dominated household. Darby also discusses her own observations and evidence of the interviewees' advocacy of tenets of the US political far right, including white supremacy, antisemitism, and other ultraconservative beliefs. One of those interviewed declares that "her primary duty is having children and supporting her husband." [19] Columnist Annie Kelly posits similarities between tradwife aesthetic and white supremacist beliefs, such as conspiracy theories about demographic changes in the United States in an attempt to encourage white women to increase pregnancy to offset the declining white birth rate. [20] [21]

While those who follow tradwife aesthetic have suggested that it is simply an anti-feminist ideal of a simpler time in the 1950s, which supports a return to traditional family values, some feminists argue that feminism allows the choice of being a housewife to begin with: [20] [22]

I say this knowing how lucky I am to be a housewife in 2015 as opposed to 1955. Would I be enjoying it so much without washing machines, dishwashers, supermarkets or disposable nappies? Definitely not. My love of the job has nothing to do with a nostalgia for a past in which, for a start, my lifestyle was inconceivable, and women were going silently mad in their impeccably dusted homes. I can enjoy being a homechief without a supply of Valium precisely because I know it doesn't have to be forever.

Media scholar Roopika Risam writes that charges of toxic femininity have become an Internet meme, exemplary of tensions between feminists online over the concept of intersectionality, and directed primarily towards non-white feminists who are seen as disruptive of mainstream feminist discussions (see Misogynoir ). [23] For example, the writer Michelle Goldberg has criticized online call-out culture as "toxic," likening it to feminist Jo Freeman's concept of "trashing." [23]

Marianismo is a term developed by scholar of Latin American studies Evelyn P. Stevens in a 1973 essay as a direct response to the male word machismo . The ideas within marianismo include those of feminine passivity, sexual purity, and moral strength. Stevens defines marianismo as "the cult of female spiritual superiority, which teaches that women are semidivine, morally superior to and spiritually stronger than men." [24] Hispanic-American feminists have criticized the concept of marianismo as it is often presented the opposite of machismo, which thus puts femininity "the realm of passivity, chastity, and self-sacrifice." [25]

Hostile and ambivalent sexism

Social psychologists Peter Glick and Susan Fiske have posed a theory of ambivalent sexism, which presents two types of sexism: hostile and benevolent. [26] Hostile sexism reflects misogyny and is expressed more blatantly to the observer. [27] Benevolent sexism, on the other hand, appears much more positive and innocent to the observer, and possibly even to the receiver as well. However, benevolently sexist statements and actions end up implying sexist notions or stereotypes. [28] [29] Glick and Fiske elaborate on the definition of benevolent sexism in their paper:

We define benevolent sexism as a set of interrelated attitudes toward women that are sexist in terms of viewing women stereotypically and in restricted roles but that are subjectively positive in feeling tone (for the perceiver) and also tend to elicit behaviors typically categorized as prosocial (e.g., helping) or intimacy-seeking (e.g., self-disclosure) (Glick & Fiske, 1996, p. 491). [Benevolent sexism is] a subjectively positive orientation of protection, idealization, and affection directed toward women that, like hostile sexism, serves to justify women's subordinate status to men (Glick et al., 2000, p. 763). [29]

Modes of internalization

Early childhood inculturation

Just as misogyny can be acquired through multiple external sources, internalized misogyny can be learned from those same external forces, in a converse way. Internalized sexism may be promoted through the demeaning of men and women on the basis of their gender in relation to societal and behavioral standards. Internalized misogyny is learned in tandem with female socialization, the idea that young girls are taught to act and behave differently than their male counterparts. These same societal and behavioral standards are also thought to be spread through exposure in the media, which reflects the standards of the society that it serves to inform and entertain.[ citation needed ]

Internalized sexism is learned primarily during adolescence through socialization into gender related practices. [1] The time period between ages 11–14 has been identified as the most vulnerable period for girls around the world in terms of internalization of sexism. [30] The social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation elaborates on this socialization process; it describes that young girls learn gender-related behaviors, attitudes, and preferences by modeling others' gender-linked behaviors, learning from the effects of one's own gender-linked behaviors, and/or learning from direct instructions how to practice gender-linked behaviors. [31] [32] Young children are more likely to adopt gender-linked behaviors when they are rewarded, or see someone else rewarded, for that behavior. [33] For example, a girl might wear more stereotypically feminine clothing after learning that conforming to society's expectations of what she should wear leads to social and personal rewards. [33] This process continues as young women face increasing amounts of pressure to conform to the norms of adult women. [34] [35] Thus, internalized sexism is practiced and spread through a range of social situations and influences, including through everyday interaction with peers. [36]

Television and cinema

There is a long-lasting connection between misogyny and mass media. Sitcoms often portray characters degrading the value of women and commenting on women's weight and size. This contributes to the internalization of gender size stereotypes, sometimes negatively affecting the mental and physical health of females. [37] One of the primary problems in mass media is the under-representation of women in widely consumed productions. [38]

The context of children's entertainment is especially pernicious because young minds are highly impressionable and cartoons have been known to play a pedagogical role in childhood development. [39] A vast amount of early Disney movies showcase a young girl needing to be rescued by a "Prince Charming" to have a happily ever after. A few examples are Cinderella, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty. The Little Mermaid has been criticized [40] because it tells a story of a young woman, Ariel, who gives up her natural identity as a mermaid in order to meet the preferences of her love interest, a human male. [38]

Social Media

Social media is a significant part of modern life. It has the power to sway people's opinions and thoughts about themselves and others. Platforms such as Instagram and TikTok host a diverse population of users and utilize sophisticated algorithms to display videos that users are most likely to be interested in. However, this algorithm can backfire, for example if a user interacts with a video containing pro eating disorder content, as they will then start seeing more and more similar videos, potentially leading to the internalization of these values.

There has also been a significant trend known as "Pick Me Girls" on TikTok. "It can be defined as a social media phenomenon dominated by women who always consider that they are the best in any kind of condition. As they are feeling perfect, they easily hate, insult, and compete with other women." [41] Women viewing other women as competition has been prevalent for a long time across various relationships, including between mothers and daughters, among girlfriends, or even between two strangers on the internet. Thanks to social media, this issue is now being openly discussed in large numbers.

Language and communication

Differences in communication across genders is influenced by internalized sexism portrayed in everyday conversation. The main target of internalized sexism are predominantly women who are regarded as inferior. In everyday conversation, women are scrutinized by objectification, called derogatory terms, or invalidated not just by men, but other women as well. Other forms of language use toward women include the use of derogatory terms, such as "bitch," "slut," and "hoe," as forms of invalidation. These terms are used as a form of gender role policing for women who defy gender norms or hold more assertive and vocal qualities. The latter two in particular is an example of slut-shaming, which, either consciously or unconsciously, is prevalent in discussions surrounding women. These conversational practices objectify, invalidate and perpetuate internalized sexism.[ citation needed ]

There are significant differences in language use between genders. Language can also act as a moderator of the maintenance of power imbalance between groups. Derogation and criticism perpetuate social stigma, which then become internalized by those affected. They become critical of themselves and members of their own gender or diminish their own voices. This is known as horizontal oppression, influenced by systematic invalidation and internal dynamics of internalized sexism. [42]

Combating internalized sexism

Research on interventions and techniques which effectively combat internalized sexism is scarce despite the ubiquity of this phenomenon. [1] [43] However, raising awareness of internalized sexism and the mechanisms behind it enables women to recognize and impede their own internalized sexism. [1] For instance, this awareness may discourage women from participating in derogation of fellow women and encourage them to support other women rather than treat them as competitors. [1] Learning about internalized sexism can therefore empower and support women throughout their everyday lives. [1]

A few other ways to combat internalized sexism is:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Misogyny</span> Prejudice against, or hatred of, women

Misogyny is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. It is a form of sexism that can keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the social roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practised for thousands of years. It is reflected in art, literature, human societal structure, historical events, mythology, philosophy, and religion worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexism</span> Prejudice or discrimination based on a persons sex or gender

Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Discrimination in this context is defined as discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. An example of this is workplace inequality. Sexism refers to violation of equal opportunities based on gender or refers to violation of equality of outcomes based on gender, also called substantive equality. Sexism may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual objectification</span> Treating a person primarily as a sexual object

Sexual objectification is the act of treating a person solely as an object of sexual desire. Objectification more broadly means treating a person as a commodity or an object without regard to their personality or dignity. Objectification is most commonly examined at the level of a society (sociology), but can also refer to the behavior of individuals (psychology), and is a type of dehumanization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biphobia</span> Aversion to bisexual people

Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being bisexual. Similarly to homophobia, it refers to hatred and prejudice specifically against those identified or perceived as being in the bisexual community. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a genuine sexual orientation, or of negative stereotypes about people who are bisexual. Other forms of biphobia include bisexual erasure. Biphobia may also avert towards other sexualities attracted to multiple genders such as pansexuality or polysexuality, as the idea of being attracted to multiple genders is generally the cause of stigma towards bisexuality.

In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or a thing. It is part of dehumanization, the act of disavowing the humanity of others. Sexual objectification, the act of treating a person as a mere object of sexual desire, is a subset of objectification, as is self-objectification, the objectification of one's self. In Marxism, the objectification of social relationships is discussed as "reification".

In social justice theory, internalized oppression is a recognized understanding in which an oppressed group accepts the methods and incorporates the oppressive message of the oppressing group against their own best interest. Rosenwasser (2002) defines it as believing, adopting, accepting, and incorporating the negative beliefs provided by the oppressor as the truth.

Susan Tufts Fiske is an American psychologist who serves as the Eugene Higgins Professor of Psychology and Public Affairs in the Department of Psychology at Princeton University. She is a social psychologist known for her work on social cognition, stereotypes, and prejudice. Fiske leads the Intergroup Relations, Social Cognition, and Social Neuroscience Lab at Princeton University. Her theoretical contributions include the development of the stereotype content model, ambivalent sexism theory, power as control theory, and the continuum model of impression formation.

Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on social structures and gender. Feminist psychology critiques historical psychological research as done from a male perspective with the view that males are the norm. Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.

Misogyny in rap music is defined as lyrics, videos, or other components of rap music that encourage, glorify, justify, or legitimize the objectification, exploitation, or victimization of women. It is an ideology that depicts women as objects for men to own, use, and abuse. It reduces women to expendable beings. It might include everything from innuendos to stereotypical characterizations and defamations.

Ambivalent sexism is a theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components: hostile sexism (HS) and benevolent sexism (BS). Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about a gender. Benevolent sexism represents evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive, but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly. For the most part, psychologists have studied hostile forms of sexism. However, theorists using the theoretical framework of ambivalent sexism have found extensive empirical evidence for both varieties. The theory has largely been developed by social psychologists Peter Glick and Susan Fiske.

Ambivalent prejudice is a social psychological theory that states that, when people become aware that they have conflicting beliefs about an outgroup, they experience an unpleasant mental feeling generally referred to as cognitive dissonance. These feelings are brought about because the individual on one hand believes in humanitarian virtues such as helping those in need, but on the other hand also believes in individualistic virtues such as working hard to improve one's life.

Benevolent prejudice is a superficially positive prejudice expressed in terms of positive beliefs and emotional responses, which are associated with hostile prejudices or result in keeping affected groups in inferior societal positions. Benevolent prejudice can be expressed towards those of different race, religion, ideology, country, sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

Examples of misogyny exist in many published forms, within multiple cultures and well-observed works. Technological advances in the modern era have contributed proficient means to media and marketing to the resultant mass media in the 21st century. The merging of misogyny and mass media has made numerous examples where studies have concluded correlations between misogynous messages, both obvious and subliminal. Corresponding physical appearance of violence and hateful conduct may be seen relative to exposure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender representation in video games</span> Portrayal of men, women and LGBT people in video games

The portrayal of gender in video games, as in other media, is a subject of research in gender studies and is discussed in the context of sexism in video gaming. Although women make up about half of video game players, they are significantly underrepresented as characters in mainstream games, despite the prominence of iconic heroines such as Samus Aran or Lara Croft. Women in games often reflect traditional gender roles, sexual objectification, or stereotypes such as the "damsel in distress". Male characters are frequently depicted as big and muscular, and LGBT characters have been slow to appear due to the cis-heteronormativity of the medium.

The exploitation of women in mass media is the use or portrayal of women in mass media such as television, film, music, and advertising as objects or sexual beings, in order to increase the appeal of media or a product to the detriment of the women being portrayed, and women in society. This process includes the presentation of women as sexual objects and the setting of feminine beauty ideals that women are expected to reflect. Sexual exploitation of women in the media dates back to 19th century Paris, in which ballerinas were exposed to harassment and objectification. The most often criticized aspect of the use of women in mass media is sexual objectification, but dismemberment can be a part of the objectification as well. The exploitation of women in mass media has been criticized by feminists and other advocates of women's rights, and is a topic of discussion in feminist studies and other fields of scholarship.

Hip hop feminism is a sub-set of black feminism that centers on intersectional subject positions involving race and gender in a way that acknowledges the contradictions in being a black feminist, such as black women's enjoyment in hip hop music and culture, rather than simply focusing on the victimization of black women in hip hop culture due to interlocking systems of oppressions involving race, class, and gender.

Gender plays a role in mass media and is represented within media platforms. These platforms are not limited to film, radio, television, advertisement, social media, and video games. Initiatives and resources exist to promote gender equality and reinforce women's empowerment in the media industry and representations. For example, UNESCO, in cooperation with the International Federation of Journalists, elaborated the Gender-sensitive Indicators for Media contributing to gender equality and women's empowerment in all forms of media.

In feminist theory, heteropatriarchy or cisheteropatriarchy, is a social construct where (primarily) cisgender and heterosexual males have authority over other cisgender males, females, and people with other sexual orientations and gender identities. It is a term that emphasizes that discrimination against women and LGBT people is derived from the same sexist social principle.

The concept of toxic masculinity is used in academic and media discussions to refer to those aspects of hegemonic masculinity that are socially destructive, such as misogyny, homophobia, and violent domination. These traits are considered "toxic" due in part to their promotion of violence, including sexual assault and domestic violence. Socialization of boys sometimes also normalizes violence, such as in the saying "boys will be boys" about bullying and aggression.

Dawn Marie Szymanski is an American psychologist. She is a Full professor and Editor-In-Chief of the Society for the Psychology of Women's journal, Psychology of Women Quarterly.

References

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  35. ↑ Hill, John P.; Lynch, Mary Ellen (1983), "The Intensification of Gender-Related Role Expectations during Early Adolescence", Girls at Puberty, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 201–228, doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0354-9_10, ISBN   978-1-4899-0356-3
  36. ↑ Eccles, J., Templeton, J., Barber, B., & Stone, M. (2003). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: The critical passage ways to adulthood. In M. H. Bornstein, & L. Davidson (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development across the life course (pp. 383-406). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  37. ↑ Fouts, Gregory; Burggraf, Kimberley (1 May 2000). "Television Situation Comedies: Female Weight, Male Negative Comments, and Audience Reactions". Sex Roles. 42 (9): 925–932. doi:10.1023/A:1007054618340. S2CID   142809015. ProQuest   225372467.
  38. 1 2 Wood, Julia T. Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, 1994.[ page needed ]
  39. ↑ Wojik-Andrews, Ian. Children's Films: History, Ideology, Pedagogy, Theory. New York City, NY: Garland Publishing. 2000.[ page needed ]
  40. ↑ Maio, Kathi (5 December 1998). "Disney's Dolls". New Internationalist.
  41. ↑ Rosida, Ida; Mona Ghazali, Meka; Dedi, Dania; Shafa Salsabila, Fanya (2022-04-04). "The Manifestation of Internalized Sexism in the Pick Me Girl Trend on TikTok". Alphabet. 5 (1): 8–19. doi: 10.21776/ub.alphabet.2022.05.01.02 .
  42. ↑ Bearman & Amrhein (2013) [ page needed ]
  43. ↑ Haffner, Brittney. "Implications for Interventions regarding Internalized Sexism and its Effects on Sexual Minority Women of Different Races and Ethnicities." Order No. 29161894, Long Island University, Brooklyn, 2021.
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