Marianismo

Last updated
Marianismo derives from Roman Catholic and Hispanic American beliefs about Mary, mother of Jesus, providing a supposed ideal of true femininity as the "absolute role model" for adult and young Hispanic/Latina women. Matka Boza z Guadalupe.jpg
Marianismo derives from Roman Catholic and Hispanic American beliefs about Mary, mother of Jesus, providing a supposed ideal of true femininity as the "absolute role model" for adult and young Hispanic/Latina women.

Marianismo is a Hispanic term that describes an ideal of true femininity with characteristics derived from the devotional cult of St. Mary of Guadalupe, a central figure of Roman Catholicism in Mexico. It defines standards for the female gender role in Hispanic American folk cultures, and is strictly intertwined with machismo and Roman Catholicism. [1]

Contents

Marianismo revolves around the veneration for feminine virtues like interpersonal harmony, inner strength, self-sacrifice, family, chastity, and morality among Hispanic/Latina women. [1] [2] [3] More ideals regarding the female gender role held within marianismo in Hispanic American culture include those of feminine passivity, sexual purity, and self-silencing. [1] [2] [3] [4] Evelyn Stevens, political scientist, states: "[I]t teaches that women are semi-divine, morally superior to and spiritually stronger than men." [5] [6]

Origin of term

"Marianismo" originally referred to a devotion towards the Blessed Virgin Mary (Spanish: María). The term was first used by political scientist Evelyn Stevens in her 1973 essay "Marianismo: The Other Face of Machismo". It was coined as a female counterpart to machismo, the hispanic ideal of masculinity. Marianismo is the supposed ideal of true femininity that women are supposed to live up to—i.e. being modest, virtuous, and sexually abstinent until marriage—and then being faithful and subordinate to their husbands. Although Stevens was the first to use the term, the concept probably originated at the same as machismo, during the time of the Spanish colonization of the Americas. [7]

In their book The Maria Paradox: How Latinas Can Merge Old World Traditions with New World Self-esteem (1996, G. P. Putnam), Rosa Maria Gil and Carmen Inoa Vazquez credit Stevens with introducing the concept of marianismo, citing the "ground-breaking essay written by Evelyn P. Stevens in 1973". They also discuss use of the term by academicians such as Sally E. Romero, Julia M. Ramos-McKay, Lillian Comas-Díaz, and Luis Romero. In their book, Gil and Vazquez use it as applicable across a variety of Hispanic cultures. [8]

Evelyn Stevens' Contributions

In her essay, Stevens defines Marianismo as "the cult of female spiritual superiority, which teaches that women are semidivine, morally superior to and spiritually stronger than men." She explains the characteristics of machismo: "exaggerated aggressiveness in intransigence in male-to-male interpersonal relationships and arrogance and sexual aggression in male-to-female relationships." Stevens argues that marianismo and machismo are complements, and that one cannot exist without the other. [5]

Origin of Marianismo

Stevens believes that marianismo is rooted in the awe and worship of female bodies, particularly in the context of pregnancy, exemplified by early cultures. She discusses the various versions of holy Mother figures found through the world, such as Ninhursaga, Mah, Ninmah, Innana, Ishtar, Astarte, Nintu, and Aruru. In many of these goddess' myths, there are stories of the young male figure in their lives, be it a son or lover, disappearing. The response of the goddesses is typically grief, and as she grieves the earth is barren. Stevens argues that this may be an allegory or explanation of the seasons. Stevens points out that the monotheistic structure of Christianity did not produce a woman-figure to venerate, especially in early Christianity, which was deeply rooted in Hebrew beliefs. [5] Around 431 AD, people began to exalt the popular figure of Mary, Mother of Jesus. As veneration of her grew, so did concern from Protestant leaders, who believed people were practicing Mariolatry.

When Spanish colonists brought Catholicism to what is now modern-day Mexico, a Native American man, who took the name Juan Diego, is said to have seen a vision of the "Most Holy Mother of God" on a mound in Tepeyac, north of what is now Mexico City. Before Christianity was introduced to the continent, Native Americans in the region believed the mound to be sacred to the Aztec goddess Tonantzin, or "Our Mother". The vision Diego saw was eventually named "Our Lady of Guadalupe" and made patroness of Mexico by Pope Benedict XIV in 1756. Our Lady of Guadalupe quickly gained prestige in Hispanic America. Father Hidalgo lead rebels with the famous Grito de Dolores in 1810: "¡Viva Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, muera el mal gobierno, mueran los gachupines!" (transl. "Long live our Lady of Guadalupe, down with bad government, down with the spurred ones" (or Spanish Mexicans)) [9]

Effects on women

In marianismo, Stevens argues, it is the bad woman who enjoys premarital sex, whereas the good woman only experiences it as a marriage requirement. Many women confess of sex with their husbands to their priests by referring to the act as "le hice el servicio" (or "I did him the service"). The belief system also believes that women should grieve heavily over family, encouraging women not to show any happiness or participate in anything that may bring them joy. Some have gained social prestige by mourning in these ways until they too die. [5]

She also states in her argument that the characteristics of the ideal woman are the same throughout the culture when she claims that "popular acceptance of a stereotype of the ideal woman [is] ubiquitous in every social class. There is near universal agreement on what a 'real woman' is like and how she should act". [7] However, she argues that most indigenous communities do not share the marianismo-machismo dichotomy.

Marianismo dictates the ideologies imposed on the day-to-day lives of Hispanic American women. Stevens believes that marianismo will not disappear anytime soon because Hispanic American women still cling to the role. She points out that men follow machismo because they are taught to by their mothers, aunts, and grandmothers. She also says that women encourage marianismo in each other because of the potential shame they could face for not fitting into its standards. Stevens believes many women find comfort in their personal and historical identities by partaking in this system. [5]

Critique of Stevens

Evelyn Stevens' essay was very significant to this area of study. However, since its publication, her argument has been debated by other researchers and critics. Although her argument addresses marianismo in Hispanic America at large, many of the sources she uses mainly focus on Mexican culture, thus severely limiting her frame of reference. Also, she is criticized for implying that, despite other differences among various socio-economic classes, the ideal woman's characteristics are ultimately the same across social classes. Her critics claim Stevens ignores socio-economic factors, saying "her description of women as altruistic, selfless, passive, [and] morally pure" is inadequate. [10] There have been some responses in the literature to the concept of marianismo that assert that its model of/for women's behavior is very class-based. In other words, the idea that men do all the hard work, while women remain idle, on a pedestal is something that rarely exists for the lowest classes. As Gil and Vazquez remind us, "most of her [Stevens's] data came from middle class Mexican women". [8]

Researcher Gloria González-López says heterosexual norms are created, maintained, and changed in different national locations. [11] González-López goes so far as to say:

Marianismo has done damage to our understanding of gender relations and inequalities among Latin American and U.S Latina women...Now discredited, marianismo was originally an attempt to examine women's gender identities and relationships within the context of inequality, by developing a model based on a religious icon (María), the quintessential expression of submissiveness and spiritual authority. This notion of Latin American women is grounded in a culturalist essentialism that does far more than spread misinformed ideas: it ultimately promotes gender inequality. Both marianismo and machismo have created clichéd archetypes, fictitious and cartoonesque representations of women and men of Latin American origin."[ citation needed ]

Ten Commandments of Marianismo

Therapists Rosa Maria Gil and Carmen Inoa Vasquez, present the beliefs they observed many of their patients holding as intrinsic to marianismo: "Don't forget the place of the woman; don't give up your traditions; don't be an old maid, independent, or have your own opinions; don't put your needs first; don't wish anything but to be a housewife; don't forget sex is to make babies, not pleasure; don't be unhappy with your man, no matter what he does to you; don't ask for help outside of your husband; don't discuss your personal problems outside the house; and don't change." [12]

Five Pillars

Other researchers identify "five pillars" of Marianismo, or specific beliefs that "good women" must adhere to. [13] [14]

Familismo

Familismo is an individual's strong identification with and attachment to family, both nuclear and extended. [13] To ascribe to this belief, Hispanic women function as the source of strength of families by maintaining their overall happiness, health, and unity. [13] [15] In order to maintain their families' reputations, Hispanic women are discouraged from sharing what is considered "family issues" with others. [14] This belief causes many women who are abused by their partners to not report their experiences to law enforcement. [16] Instead, they may talk about the abuse with family and friends. However, this disclosure to friends and family is linked to increased risk of future assault of Hispanic women. [17] Therefore, adherence to traditional values of keeping matters regarding abuse within one's family discourage reporting and may have serious health implications for those experiencing abuse. [14]

The concept of family is considered so important to marianismo women that those who attempt to intervene in situations of partner violence in marianismos are encouraged to view autonomy and independence as very westernized concepts, and are told to instead focus on listening and aiding women in the goals they create to avoid violence, in order to avoid alienating the women. [18] Many of the goals stated by those interviewed were, rather than leaving a relationship with an abusive husband, to stop the violence, improve relationships with their partners, help their partners learn to be more supportive husbands and fathers. [19]

Men and women in Hispanic cultures are expected to value their families, though the ways to express the value vary based on gender proscriptions. While men are expected to provide financial resources, protection, and leadership, [20] women are told to provide emotionally and physically in part by raising children and doing domestic work within their homes. [13]

Chastity

Virginity is viewed as an important feature, and by abstaining from premarital sex, women prevent shame from coming upon themselves and their families. [13] Often, sex is associated with feelings of guilt and sadness in marianismo-abiding girls and women. [21] [12] This is because sex is often framed in a dichotomy of either being for procreation or eroticism. [12]

Women are expected to be non-sexual and virginally pure. This means that women should strive for monogamy, sexual desire in long-term, committed (ideally married) relationships only, and should limit their exploration of their sexual identities only in heterosexual relationships. [22] This often leads to an interpretation that women should remain with their partner for the rest of their lives, even if they are abused. [23]

Women are also expected to be passive in sexual encounters, which is linked to lower condom usage and therefore higher risk of STIs, especially HIV/AIDS. [14] [24] [25] Women are expected to learn how to have sex from their husbands, and if a woman shows too much interest or assertiveness, she is sometimes treated as "suspect". [12]

Respeto

Respeto ("respect") is the obedience, duty, and deference an individual adheres to in their position of a hierarchical structure. [13] This maintains the common Hispanic family structure, and provides individuals with a standard to how they respond to interpersonal situations. [26] There is a golden rule, no faltarle el respeto, which tells individuals not to speak against those who are higher up in the hierarchy. [26]

Self-silencing

According to marianismo, Hispanic women should withhold personal thoughts and needs in order to avoid disagreement. [2] [3] [4] [14] Adherence to this belief is linked with significantly higher rates of psychological distress, depression, and anxiety in Hispanic women and young girls. [2] [3] [4] [27] It also influences women to stay in violent interpersonal relationships. [3] [14] [25] Many Hispanic women perceive that "keeping things inside" causes their depression. [28]

Simpatía

Simpatía is a value of peace keeping and "kindness" that calls for women to avoid disagreements and assertiveness to keep relationships harmonious. [14] [29]

Spiritual

This pillar focuses on the perceived ability, and therefore responsibility, given to women to lead their families in spiritual growth and religious practice. [14] This pillar is considered to be very important to perceived "good mothers". [29] Higher endorsement of spiritual responsibility of women and mothers is linked to anger, hostility, and anxiety in women. [2]

In the media

Very few studies on the role of marianismo in the media have been conducted. However, in more recent years, researchers are beginning to explore this cultural phenomenon. Researchers Jorge Villegas, Jennifer Lemanski and Carlos Valdez conducted a study on the portrayal of women in Mexican television commercials. Often women are portrayed as either those who adhere to the feminine ideal, and those who do not. These women are then categorized as good women and bad women, respectively. These "good women" are seen as nurturing, family-oriented, soft-spoken, even-tempered and sexually naïve, whereas the "bad women" are often the sexual targets of men. Another dichotomy presented by this study is dependent women versus independent women. The researchers found that "dependent women tended to display characteristics perceived as positive in marianismo (helpful, rewarded by their family) whereas independent women were more sexualized". [30] A similar study by Rocío Rivadeneyra examined the gender portrayals in telenovelas. Her research found that in comparison to their male counterparts, women were seen as spending more time with children and were either homemakers or unemployed. [31] Both studies, however, noted that women and men were portrayed with equal frequency in the media.

A study of commercials on Mexico's national TV found a disparity in the ways women are depicted based on whether they are dependent on another person to have their role (mothers/wives) or independent (single women/employees). The study found that independent women are objectified and sexualized more than dependent women, by wearing significantly more torn clothing to expose the torso and explicit/implicit nudity. Though, both independent and dependent women are more sexualized than men, by wearing more tight-fitting clothes, low-cut/unbuttoned shirts to show cleavage, and nudity. Independent women's motivations for taking actions were significantly more for the approval of men and for social advancement than dependent women. [32] [33] In addition, in these commercials, dependent women are viewed in stereotypical feminine settings, significantly more often in homes and restaurants and less in stores and occupational settings than men. Dependent women are found in homes and outdoors significantly more than independent women who are seen in workplaces more often. Also, women were shown significantly more often as both the givers and receivers of advice and the receivers of help, with men most commonly giving help to others. Commercials reflect cultural views, and these may show understandings on women's expected roles. [32] [34] Portrayals of women as traditional has a real effect on what women and girls can perceive themselves doing and becoming. [35]

Criticisms

Marianismo presents a foundation for normal female behavior within Hispanic countries. Under Marianismo, women are expected to present behavior that shows compliance to male dominance, strong ties to morality (especially relating to the Virgin Mary), and willing to give up everything for the name of family. [36] Like machismo, Marianismo sets up a list of rules that promotes how one needs to be when interacting with society, strongly encouraging a gap between the genders by reinforcing these beliefs in various ways throughout society. Hispanic people who are exposed to the constructs of Marianismo and Machismo are predisposed to behaviors normative within the Hispanic cultures of what constitutes being a man and a woman. Expectations of behavior begin to be evident before birth with these social constructs, liberating and constricting both genders to fit inside a bubble deemed appropriate by Hispanic cultural values. [13] Men are viewed as providers and decision-makers for their family, while women are to provide emotional support to their families only. [13]

Marianismo also plays a role in gender roles that may lead to increased incidence of gender-based violence in Latin American countries, which can portray women as submissive, and extensions of men who dominate them. [37] This can result in women being victims of gender-based violence, especially intimate-partner violence* which is often defended by the belief that a woman’s husband has the right to use physical or emotional abuse against her. [37] Furthermore, Femicide in Latin America is an issue that has been prevalent for many years throughout the region. Gender roles, and the concept of marianismo shape attitudes towards women, thus determining how they are treated in society. [37]

Hispanic women's experiences in life both hinder and improve due to Marianismo. They are more likely to exhibit higher levels for pessimistic views in life and developing depression. Yet, they are also less likely to attempt unsafe behavior, such as underage drinking and substance abuse. [38] Restrictions placed on their expected behaviors instills women to remain quiet about their issues. If efforts build to push away from the social constructs behind Marianismo, criticisms appear from the outside community. Even without going against the norm, stereotypes of Hispanic women are conjured up, similar to men under Machismo. They are viewed as "exotic", implying they are secretly sexually passionate wanting to branch out from that ideology, or prefer to divulge in dangerous activities to make up for this “innocent” life they’ve been confined in, much like the archetype of the "sexy librarian". Furthermore, women can ostracize the woman fighting against the norm, claiming she is going against her culture and faith by her challenges towards Marianismo [38]

In Hispanic countries, a woman who presents herself in society without a man is frowned upon, as a man is the basis of family life and having a positive association within the community. [36] Machismo promotes aggression, dominance and entitlement— characteristics that can be applied when focusing on interpersonal violence. [39] When applying interpersonal violence, Hispanic women deal with the abuse from IPV from fear of losing their husbands, their children’s father and social status of admitting abuse to the outside world. [36] Marianismo promotes women to be self-sacrificing, leading for them to accept abuse continually and remain quiet from fear of losing their livelihood and dependency from their husbands. Given these characteristics, men remain dominant and exert their power over their partner, continuing the cultural establishment of patriarchy within Hispanic cultures. [36]

Studies conducted on marianismo have concluded that Hispanic women who ascribe to this particular female gender role are more likely to engage in high-risk sexual behaviors, gender-based violence, and experience negative mental health outcomes. [1]

Jane F. Collier demonstrated that access to economic opportunity is a factor in determining to what extent Hispanic women may choose to conform to traditional notions of marianismo, and to what degree they are inclined to adapt them to new circumstances. As early as 1997, Dr. Rosa Gil and Dr. Carmen Inoa-Vazquez made reference to Nuevo Marianismo, which is to embrace the marianismo ideal of being nurturing and caring, yet breaking away from the barriers those characteristics previously presented. Coined in 1973, researcher Gloria González-López says that marianismo, as a theoretical category, is not only culturally chauvinist but elitist as well.[ citation needed ]

HIV crisis

According to Marianismo beliefs, women are expected to be naïve about sex, which means that many girls and women are not taught about the spread of HIV/AIDS. [24] As a result women know very little about sex, including the homosexual extramarital affairs of their husbands. [24] Many husbands have homosexual relations as a way to prove their machismo. Most women in Hispanic American cultures with HIV contracted it from their sole sex partner, their husband. [40] Regardless of the sexual monogamy associated with Marianismo purity a woman adheres to, her status as HIV-positive threatens the identity she wants to associate with. [24]

Women often stay silent about their status out of fear of being ostracized by family. Women are often blamed for their husbands' contractions of and death from HIV. [24] Women who are HIV-positive have the risk of their children being taken away from them, because their families often see them as too sick and dirty to care for them. [24] Women often lose status if they are seen to be associating with people who are HIV-positive, because people with HIV are often associated with sexual deviancy and impurity. [41]

Feminist criticism

Some feminists criticize the concept of marianismo, suggesting that it simply legitimizes the social conditions of women in Hispanic America by making it seem valid and normal. They also note that marianismo is often presented as everything machismo is not; therefore femaleness is put into "the realm of passivity, chastity, and self-sacrifice". [42] They argue marianismo suggests that if a woman has a job outside of the home, her virtues and her husband's machismo are put into question.

Ambivalent Sexism Theory

According to Ambivalent Sexism Theory, sexism and women's low status in terms of autonomy and safety is maintained through two types of sexism, hostile and benevolent. Hostile sexism being the belief that women inherently have negative features, and benevolent sexism often being the belief that women have inherently delicate features that causes the need for protection. [43] Marianismo and ambivalent sexism share similar traits, including the fact that women are given respect, high status, and protection if they conform to gendered expectations. [44] Marianismo thus functions as a risk factor and a protective factor. [45]

Modern Marianismo

Hispanic and Latina women in the United States find themselves attempting to merge two cultures. "Latinas today are demonstrating ... "Modern Marianismo" (Gil & Vazquez (1997) referred to as "Nuevo Marianismo") which is to embrace the Marianismo Ideal (of being nurturing and caring), yet breaking away from the barriers those characteristics previously presented (for Latinas)." [46] Damary Bonilla-Rodríguez says that values such as: Familia, Amor y Pasión (Family, Love and Passion) have allowed [her] people to overcome adversity across centuries, and highlighting successful Latinas such as Justice Sonia Sotomayor, Secretary Hilda Solis, and others is essential to connecting Latino cultural values with mainstream American values. [46]

Such change is not unique to the United States. In Andalusia, with exposure to more modern models in Spanish TV and advertising, in one generation the focus shifted from traditional norms of expected behavior with the realization that "inequalities in income and lifestyle among villagers no longer appeared to rest on inheritance, but on urban, salaried jobs people obtained." [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexism</span> Prejudice or discrimination based on a persons sex or gender

Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Discrimination in this context is defined as discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. An example of this is workplace inequality. Sexism refers to violation of equal opportunities based on gender or refers to violation of equality of outcomes based on gender, also called substantive equality. Sexism may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transphobia</span> Anti-transgender prejudice

Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender people or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to social gender roles. Transphobia is a type of prejudice and discrimination, similar to racism, sexism, or ableism, and it is closely associated with homophobia. People of color who are transgender experience discrimination above and beyond that which can be explained as a simple combination of transphobia and racism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual objectification</span> Treating a person primarily as a sexual object

Sexual objectification is the act of treating a person solely as an object of sexual desire. Objectification more broadly means treating a person as a commodity or an object without regard to their personality or dignity. Objectification is most commonly examined at the level of a society (sociology), but can also refer to the behavior of individuals (psychology), and is a type of dehumanization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Femicide</span> Murder of women or girls because of their sex

Femicide or feminicide is a term for the murdering of females, often because of their gender. In 1976, the feminist author Diana E. H. Russell first implicitly defined the term as a hate killing of females by males but then went on to redefine it as "the killing of females by males because they are female" in later years. Femicide can be perpetrated by either sex but is more often committed by men. This is most likely due to unequal power between men and women as well as harmful gender roles, stereotypes, or social norms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rape culture</span> Society in which rape is pervasive and normalised

Rape culture is a setting, as described by some sociological theories, in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to that setting's attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, slut-shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence, or some combination of these. It has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire societies have been alleged to be rape cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ stereotypes</span> Stereotypes around LGBTQ people and communities

LGBTQ stereotypes are stereotypes about lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people based on their sexual orientations, gender identities, or gender expressions. Stereotypical perceptions may be acquired through interactions with parents, teachers, peers and mass media, or, more generally, through a lack of firsthand familiarity, resulting in an increased reliance on generalizations.

Rape is a traumatic experience that affects the victim (survivor) in a physical, psychological, and sociological way. Even though the effects and aftermath of rape differ among victims, individuals tend to suffer from similar issues found within these three categories. Long-term reactions may involve the development of coping mechanisms that will either benefit the victim, such as social support, or inhibit their recovery. Seeking support and professional resources may assist the victim in numerous ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Machismo</span> Pride in exaggerated masculinity

Machismo is the sense of being "manly" and self-reliant, a concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity". Machismo is a term originating in the early 1930s and 1940s best defined as having pride in one's masculinity. While the term is associated with "a man's responsibility to provide for, protect, and defend his family", machismo is strongly and consistently associated with dominance, aggression, grandstanding, and an inability to nurture. The correlation to machismo is found to be deeply rooted in family dynamics and culture.

Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent. Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice. Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.

Internalized sexism is a form of sexist behavior and attitudes enacted by women toward themselves or other women and girls. Internalized sexism is a form of internalized oppression, which "consists of oppressive practices that continue to make the rounds even when members of the oppressor group are not present." Internalized sexism can have a range of effects on women and girls such as problems with mental health and body image. Modes of internalization of sexism include early childhood inculturation and consumption of media, especially of celebrity and entertainment news.

Violence against men comprises violent acts that are disproportionately committed against men or boys. Men are overrepresented as both victims and perpetrators of violence. Violence against women is the opposite category, where acts of violence are targeted against the female gender.

Homophobia in ethnic minority communities is any negative prejudice or form of discrimination in ethnic minority communities worldwide towards people who identify as–or are perceived as being–lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT), known as homophobia. This may be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, irrational fear, and is sometimes related to religious beliefs. A 2006 study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in the UK found that while religion can have a positive function in many LGB Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) communities, it can also play a role in supporting homophobia.

Rape myths are prejudicial, stereotyped, and false beliefs about sexual assaults, rapists, and rape victims. They often serve to excuse sexual aggression, create hostility toward victims, and bias criminal prosecution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in same-sex relationships</span>

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships or intragender violence is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender sex workers</span>

Transgender sex workers are transgender people who work in the sex industry or perform sexual services in exchange for money or other forms of payment. In general, sex workers appear to be at great risk for serious health problems related to their profession, such as physical and sexual assault, robbery, murder, physical and mental health problems, and drug and alcohol addiction. Though all sex workers are at risk for the problems listed, some studies suggest that sex workers who engage in street-based work have a higher risk for experiencing these issues. Transgender sex workers experience high degrees of discrimination both in and outside of the sex industry and face higher rates of contracting HIV and experiencing violence as a result of their work. In addition, a clear distinction needs to be made between consensual sex work and sex trafficking where there is a lack of control and personal autonomy.

Vergüenza directly translates to shame in English, refers to the cultural and social phenomena that shapes, and often constricts Chicana/o and Latina/o lives to a more conservative, traditional mold. The role of vergüenza not only helps mold lives to a traditional mold, but serves primarily to maintain traditional gender roles, and reinforcing familial relations and expectations. Chicana/o scholars were important to theorizing and documenting verguenza, which has contributed to the fields of mental health and sociology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against transgender people in the United States</span> Social and political issue in the U.S.

Violence against transgender people in the United States includes sexual, physical, and emotional violence. These acts of gender-based violence may result in the death of a transgender person. Transgender people are more likely to be violently attacked than cisgender ones. The murder rate for transgender individuals is estimated to be lower than that of cisgender people, though the trend is reversed for young Black or Latina transgender women. Between 2008 and 2020, 271 murders on trans people were reported in USA, giving c. 0.83 murders per 1,000,000 inhabitants and placing USA somewhere in the middle between "safe" and "unsafe" states, with reservation for inaccuracies and possible underreporting from some locations.

Evelyn Paniagua Stevens was an American scholar of Latin American studies. She spent much of her career at the Latin American Studies Center in the University of California, Berkeley, where she was a scholar of Latin American politics and women's studies. Stevens may have been the first to introduce the concept of marianismo to the academic literature, when she controversially argued in 1973 that marianismo was a widespread counterbalance to machismo. Stevens was the 10th President of the Latin American Studies Association, and the first woman to be president of that organization.

LGBT trauma is the distress an individual experiences due to being a lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer person or from possessing another minoritized sexual or gender identity. This distress can be harmful to the individual and predispose them to trauma- and stressor-related disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender relations in Guatemala</span>

Gender relations in Guatemala examine how traditional norms influence the daily interactions and relationships between Guatemalan men and women. In Guatemala's societal structure, men and women are encouraged to participate in activities corresponding to their gender. Due to this, Guatemalan men and women are segregated by their gender roles and responsibilities. Likewise, research shows that individuals experience gender relations differently depending on whether they are from a Ladino or Maya ethnic group, i.e., non-indigenous or indigenous.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Morales, Alejandro; Pérez, Oscar Fernando Rojas (18 September 2020). "Marianismo". In Carducci, Bernardo J.; Mio, Jeffrey S.; Nave, Christopher S.; Riggio, Ronald E. (eds.). The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences: Clinical, Applied, and Cross-Cultural Research. Vol. IV. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 247–251. doi:10.1002/9781119547181.ch306. ISBN   9781119057475. S2CID   243045231.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Nuñez, Alicia; González, Patricia; Talavera, Gregory A.; Sanchez-Johnsen, Lisa; Roesch, Scott C.; Davis, Sonia M.; Arguelles, William; Womack, Veronica Y.; Ostrovsky, Natania W.; Ojeda, Lizette; Penedo, Frank J.; Gallo, Linda C. (November 2016). "Machismo, Marianismo, and Negative Cognitive-Emotional Factors: Findings From the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Sociocultural Ancillary Study". Journal of Latinx Psychology . 4 (4). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association: 202–217. doi:10.1037/lat0000050. eISSN   2163-0070. ISSN   2168-1678. PMC   5102330 . PMID   27840779. S2CID   3432059.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Da Silva, Nicole; De La Rosa, Mario; Dillon, Frank R.; Ertl, Melissa M.; Verdejo, Toni R. (May 2018). "Marianismo Beliefs, Intimate Partner Violence, and Psychological Distress Among Recently Immigrated, Young Adult Latinas". Journal of Interpersonal Violence . 36 (7–8). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications: 3755–3777. doi:10.1177/0886260518778263. eISSN   1552-6518. ISSN   0886-2605. LCCN   sf93092056. OCLC   12879051. PMID   29806565. S2CID   44121465.
  4. 1 2 3 Kosmicki, Mia (September 2017). "Marianismo Identity, Self-Silencing, Depression and Anxiety in Women from Santa María de Dota, Costa Rica/Marianismo, auto-silenciamiento, depresión y ansiedad en mujeres de Santa María de Dota, Costa Rica". UNED Research Journal . 9 (2). San José, Costa Rica: Universidad Estatal a Distancia: 202–208. doi: 10.22458/urj.v9i2.1895 . eISSN   1659-441X. S2CID   55332980 . Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Evelyn P. Stevens, "Marianismo: la otra cara del machismo en Latino-América"; in: Ann Pescatelo, Hembra y macho en Latino-América: Ensayos., Edición Diana, México 1977, p.123.
  6. ↑ Navarro, Marysa (2002). "Against Marianismo". Gender's Place. pp. 257–272. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-12227-8_13. ISBN   978-1-4039-6040-5.
  7. 1 2 Web Archive, Marianismo: Origin and Meaning
  8. 1 2 Marianismo: Origin and Meaning Archived 2006-08-30 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ↑ Cloud, William F. (1896). Church and state, or, Mexican politics from Cortez to Diaz. The Library of Congress. Kansas City, Mo., Peck & Clark, printers.
  10. ↑ Montoya, Rosario, Lessie Jo Frazier, and Janise Hurtig (eds.). Gender's Place: Feminist Anthropologies Of Latin America. n.p.: New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
  11. ↑ Olaiz, Francisca Angulo. Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Latino-Américaines Et Caraïbes, vol. 32, no. 63, 2007, pp. 257–259. JSTOR
  12. 1 2 3 4 Gil, Rosa Maria; Vazquez, Carmen Inoa (1997-07-01). The Maria paradox: how Latinas can merge Old World traditions with New World self-esteem. Perigee Books. ISBN   9780399523090.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Castillo, Linda; V Perez, Flor; Castillo, Rosalinda; R Ghosheh, Mona (2010-06-01). "Construction and Initial Validation of the Marianismo Beliefs Scale". Counselling Psychology Quarterly. 23 (2): 163–175. doi:10.1080/09515071003776036. S2CID   144090495.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mayorga, Magaly Nóblega (June 2012). "Risk and Protective Factors for Physical and Emotional Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in a Community of Lima, Peru". Journal of Interpersonal Violence . 27 (18). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications: 3644–3659. doi:10.1177/0886260512447522. eISSN   1552-6518. ISSN   0886-2605. LCCN   sf93092056. OCLC   12879051. PMID   22661121. S2CID   23641788 . Retrieved 13 July 2021– via ResearchGate.
  15. ↑ Chavez-Korell, Shannon; Benson-Florez, Gregory; Delgado Rendon, Angelica (March 24, 2013). "Examining the Relationships Between Physical Functioning, Ethnic Identity, Acculturation, Familismo, and Depressive Symptoms for Latino Older Adults". The Counseling Psychologist. 42 (2): 255–277. doi:10.1177/0011000013477906. S2CID   145384361.
  16. ↑ Weidmer Ocampo, Beverly; Shelley, Gene; Jaycox, Lisa (2007). "Latino Teens Talk About Help Seeking and Help Giving in Relation to Dating Violence". Violence Against Women. 13 (2) (2 ed.): 172–189. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.830.5322 . doi:10.1177/1077801206296982. PMID   17251504. S2CID   42532601.
  17. ↑ Cheng, Tyrone C.; Lo, Celia C. (July 2016). "Racial Disparities in Intimate Partner Violence Examined Through the Multiple Disadvantage Model". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 31 (11): 2026–2051. doi:10.1177/0886260515572475. ISSN   1552-6518. PMID   25716196. S2CID   29064224.
  18. ↑ Perilla, J. L.; Lavizzo (2007). "Towards a community psychology of liberation". Advancing social Justice through clinical practice. Lawrence Erlbaumm. pp. 291–312.
  19. ↑ Perilla, J. L.; Vasquez Serrata; Weinberg; Lippy (2012). "Integrating women's voices and theory: A comprehensive domestic violence intervention for Latinas". Women & Therapy. 35 (1–2): 93–105. doi:10.1080/02703149.2012.634731. S2CID   144191148.
  20. ↑ Arciniega, Zoila G.; Anderson, Thomas C. (2008). "Toward a Fuller Conception of Machismo: Development of a Traditional Machismo and Caballerismo Scale" (PDF). Journal of Counseling Psychology. 55: 19–33. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.19 . Retrieved 2018-12-20.
  21. ↑ Espinosa-Hernández, Graciela; Vasilenko, Sara A.; Bámaca-Colbert, Mayra Y. (September 2016). "Sexual behaviors in Mexico: The role of values and gender across adolescence". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 26 (3): 603–609. doi:10.1111/jora.12209. ISSN   1050-8392. PMC   5461668 . PMID   28581656.
  22. ↑ Faulkner, Sandra L. (May 1, 2003). "Good Girl or Flirt Girl: Latinas' Definitions of Sex and Sexual Relationships". Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 25 (2): 174–200. doi:10.1177/0739986303025002003. S2CID   145403532.
  23. ↑ Kulkarni, Shanti (February 1, 2007). "Romance Narrative, Feminine Ideals, and Developmental Detours for Young Mothers". Affilia. 22: 9–22. doi:10.1177/0886109906295765. S2CID   145425421.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Valencia-Garcia, Dellanira; Starks, Helene; Strick, Lara; Simoni, Jane M. (October 2008). "After the fall from grace: Negotiation of new identities among HIV-positive women in Peru". Culture, Health & Sexuality . 10 (7). Taylor & Francis: 739–752. doi:10.1080/13691050802213563. eISSN   1464-5351. ISSN   1369-1058. OCLC   41546256. PMC   2704982 . PMID   18821355. S2CID   43008333.
  25. 1 2 Moreno, Claudia L. (March 2007). "The relationship between culture, gender, structural factors, abuse, trauma, and HIV/AIDS for Latinas". Qualitative Health Research. 17 (3): 340–352. doi:10.1177/1049732306297387. ISSN   1049-7323. PMID   17301342. S2CID   21101396.
  26. 1 2 Santiago-Rivera, Azara; Arredondo, Patricia; Gallardo-Cooper, Maritza (2002). Counseling Latinos and la Familia: A Practical Guide. Thousand Oaks, California. doi:10.4135/9781452204635. ISBN   9780761923305.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  27. ↑ Sanchez, Delida; Vandewater, Elizabeth A.; Hamilton, Emma R. (April–June 2019). "Examining marianismo gender role attitudes, ethnic identity, mental health, and substance use in Mexican American early adolescent girls". Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse. 18 (2). Taylor & Francis: 319–342. doi:10.1080/15332640.2017.1356785. eISSN   1533-2659. ISSN   1533-2640. PMC   5831487 . PMID   28846057. S2CID   3702730.
  28. ↑ Hilde, A.; Galian, H.; Celaya-Alston, R.; Alvarado, A.; Mejia, A.; Perez, M.; Nicolaidis, C. (November 2011). ""Guardarse las cosas adentro" (keeping things inside): Latina violence survivors' perceptions of depression". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 26 (10): 1131–1137. doi:10.1007/s11606-011-1747-0. ISSN   0884-8734. PMC   3181295 . PMID   21626052.
  29. 1 2 Reyes, Rosalinda Castillo (2013-04-05). The Revalidation of the Marianismo Beliefs Scale on an International Sample in Mexico (Thesis thesis).
  30. ↑ Villegas, Jorge, Jennifer Lemanski, and Carlos Valdéz. "Marianismo And Machismo: The Portrayal Of Females In Mexican TV Commercials." Journal of International Consumer Marketing 22.4 (2010): 327-346.
  31. ↑ Rivadeneyra, Rocío. "Gender And Race Portrayals On Spanish-Language Television." Sex Roles 65.3/4 (2011): 208-222.
  32. 1 2 Villegas, Jorge; Lemanski, Jennifer; Valdéz, Carlos (2010-10-01). "Marianismo and Machismo: The Portrayal of Females in Mexican TV Commercials". Journal of International Consumer Marketing. 22 (4): 327–346. doi:10.1080/08961530.2010.505884. S2CID   145471383.
  33. ↑ Sequeira, David (2009-02-03). The Machismo and Marianismo Tango. Dorrance Publishing. ISBN   9781434901330.
  34. ↑ Del Hoyo Hurtado, Mercedes; Berganza, Rosa (2006-01-01). "La mujer y el hombre en la publicidad televisiva: imágenes y estereotipos / Women and men in television advertising: images and stereotype". Zer: Revista de Estudios de Comunicación (21): 161–175. ISSN   1137-1102.
  35. ↑ Signorielli, Nancy (1993), "Television, the Portrayal of Women, and Children's Attitudes", Children & Television: Images in a Changing Sociocultural World, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 229–242, doi:10.4135/9781483326221, ISBN   9780803947009 , retrieved 2019-01-02
  36. 1 2 3 4 Ehlers, Tracy Bachrach (January 1991). "Debunking Marianismo: Economic Vulnerability and Survival Strategies among Guatemalan Wives". Ethnology. 30 (1): 1–16. doi:10.2307/3773494. ISSN   0014-1828. JSTOR   3773494.
  37. 1 2 3 Wright, Alejandra (January 18, 2022). "FEMICIDE IN LATIN AMERICA:REIMAGINING CATHOLIC SYMBOLISM IN THE PURSUIT OF JUSTICE". Mystērion: The Theology Journal of Boston College. 1 (2): 126–137.
  38. 1 2 Scott, Deena Isom (2018-03-01). "Latina Fortitude in the Face of Disadvantage: Exploring the Conditioning Effects of Ethnic Identity and Gendered Ethnic Identity on Latina Offending". Critical Criminology. 26 (1): 49–73. doi:10.1007/s10612-017-9380-9. ISSN   1572-9877. S2CID   148826769.
  39. ↑ Norris, Fran H.; Bakeman, Roger; Perilla, Julia L. (1994-01-01). "Culture and Domestic Violence: The Ecology of Abused Latinas". Violence and Victims. 9 (4): 325–339. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.9.4.325. ISSN   1945-7073. PMID   7577760. S2CID   46131579.
  40. ↑ Arguelles, L; Rivero, A.M. (1988). "HIV infection/AIDS and Latinas in the Los Angeles county: considerations for prevention treatment and research practice". California Sociologist. 11: 69–89.
  41. ↑ Lawless, S.; Kippax, S.; Crawford, J. (November 1996). "Dirty, diseased and undeserving: the positioning of HIV positive women". Social Science & Medicine. 43 (9): 1371–1377. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(96)00017-2. ISSN   0277-9536. PMID   8913006.
  42. ↑ De La Torre, Miguel A. Hispanic American Religious Cultures. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2009.
  43. ↑ Glick, Peter; Fiske, Susan T. (1997). "Hostile and Benevolent Sexism". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 21: 119–35. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00104.x. S2CID   53683112.
  44. ↑ Fischer, Ann R. (2006). "Women's Benevolent Sexism as Reaction to Hostility". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 30 (4) (4 ed.): 410–416. doi:10.1111/pwqu.2006.30.issue-4.
  45. ↑ Jezzini, Andreana T. (August 1, 2012). "Acculturation, Marianismo Gender Role, and Ambivalent Sexism in Predicting Depression in Latinas". University of Denver.
  46. 1 2 Bonilla-Rodriguez, Damary. "Latinas and Modern Marianismo", Huff Post, October 25, 2013
  47. ↑ Collier, Jane F. “From Mary to Modern Woman: The Material Basis of Marianismo and Its Transformation in a Spanish Village.” American Ethnologist, vol. 13, no. 1, 1986, pp. 100–107. JSTOR

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.