Hebrews

Last updated

Judaean prisoners being deported into exile to other parts of the Assyrian Empire. Wall relief from the Southwest Palace at Nineveh, Mesopotamia, dated to 700-692 BCE (the Neo-Assyrian period). Currently on display at the British Museum. Judaean people are being deported into exile after the capture of Lachish.jpg
Judaean prisoners being deported into exile to other parts of the Assyrian Empire. Wall relief from the Southwest Palace at Nineveh, Mesopotamia, dated to 700–692 BCE (the Neo-Assyrian period). Currently on display at the British Museum.

The Hebrews (Hebrew : עִבְרִיִּים / עִבְרִים, Modern: ʿĪvrīm / ʿĪvrīyyīm, Tiberian: ʿĪḇrīm / ʿĪḇrīyyīm; ISO 259-3:ʕibrim / ʕibriyim) were an ancient Semitic-speaking people. Historians mostly consider the Hebrews as synonymous with the Israelites, with the term "Hebrew" denoting an Israelite from the nomadic era, which preceded the establishment of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah in the 11th century BCE. However, in some instances, the designation "Hebrew" may also be used historically in a wider sense, referring to the Phoenicians or other ancient Semitic-speaking civilizations, such as the Shasu on the eve of the Late Bronze Age collapse. [1] It appears 34 times within 32 verses of the Hebrew Bible. [2] [3] Some scholars regard "Hebrews" as an ethnonym, [4] while others do not, [5] [6] and others still hold that the multiple modern connotations of ethnicity may not all map well onto the sociology of ancient Near Eastern groups. [7]

Contents

By the time of the Roman Empire, the term Hebraios (Greek : Ἑβραῖος) could refer to the Jews in general (as Strong's Hebrew Dictionary puts it: "any of the Jewish Nation") [8] or, at other times, specifically to those Jews who lived in Judea, which was a Roman province from 6 CE to 135 CE. However, at the time of early Christianity, the term instead referred to Jewish Christians, as opposed to the Judaizers and to the gentile Christians. [9]

In Armenian, Georgian, Italian, Greek, Kurdish, Serbian, Russian, Romanian, and a few other languages, the transfer of the name from "Hebrew" to "Jew" never took place, and "Hebrew" (or the linguistic equivalent) remains the primary word used to refer to an ethnic Jew. [10] [11]

With the revival of the Hebrew language in the 19th century and with the emergence of the Yishuv, the term "Hebrew" has been applied[ citation needed ] to the Jewish people of this re-emerging society in Israel or to the Jewish people in general.

Etymology

The biblical term Ivri (עברי; Hebrew pronunciation: [ʕivˈri] ) is usually rendered as Hebrew in English, from the ancient Greek Ἑβραῖος and the Latin Hebraeus. The biblical word Ivri has the plural form Ivrim, or Ibrim. The definitive origin of the term "Hebrew" remains uncertain. [12]

The most generally accepted hypothesis today [13] [14] [15] is that the text intends ivri as the adjective (Hebrew suffix -i) formed from ever (עֵבֶר) 'beyond, across' (avar (עָבַר) 'he crossed, he traversed'), as a description of migrants 'from across the river' as the Bible describes the Hebrews. [16] It is also supported by the 3rd century BCE Septuagint, which translates ivri to perates (περατής), [17] a Greek word meaning "one who came across, a migrant", [18] from perao (περάω) "to cross, to traverse", [19] as well as some early traditional commentary. [20] Gesenius considers it the only linguistically acceptable hypothesis. [21] The description of peoples and nations from their location "from across the river" (often the river Euphrates, sometimes the Jordan River) was common in this region of the ancient Near-East: [22] it appears as eber nari in Akkadian [23] [24] and avar nahara in Aramaic (both corresponding to Hebrew ever nahar), the Aramaic expression's use being quoted verbatim in the Bible, for example in an Aramaic letter sent to the King of Persia in the Book of Ezra [25] or in the Book of Nehemiah, [26] sometimes rendered as Trans-Euphrates. [27]

Ramesses III prisoner tiles depicting Canaanite and Shasu leaders as captives. Most archaeologists regard the Hebrews as local Canaanite refugees and possibly some Shasu settling down in the hill-country. Canaanites and Shasu Leader captives from Ramses III's tile collection; By Niv Lugassi.png
Ramesses III prisoner tiles depicting Canaanite and Shasu leaders as captives. Most archaeologists regard the Hebrews as local Canaanite refugees and possibly some Shasu settling down in the hill-country.
A depiction of the Ancient Hebrews in Dura-Europos synagogue Samuel e david.jpg
A depiction of the Ancient Hebrews in Dura-Europos synagogue
Moses leads the Israelites across the Red Sea while pursued by Pharaoh. Fresco from the Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria, 244-256 CE Dura Europos fresco Jews cross Red Sea.jpg
Moses leads the Israelites across the Red Sea while pursued by Pharaoh. Fresco from the Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria, 244–256 CE

Genesis 10:21 refers to Shem, the elder brother of Ham and Japheth, and thus the first-born son of Noah, as the father of the sons of Eber (עבר), which may have a similar meaning.

Some authors such as Radak and R. Nehemiah [31] argue that Ibri denotes the descendants of the biblical patriarch Eber (Hebrew עבר), son of Shelah, a great-grandson of Noah and an ancestor of Abraham, [32] hence the occasional anglicization Eberites. Others disagree, arguing that the Eberites and Hebrews were two different ethnicities, with the former specifically inhabiting Assyria. Nonetheless, the descent of Hebrews from Eber is acknowledged. [33]

Since the 19th-century CE discovery of the second-millennium BCE inscriptions mentioning the Habiru, many theories have linked these to the Hebrews. Some scholars argue that the name "Hebrew" is related to the name of those semi-nomadic Habiru people recorded in Egyptian inscriptions of the 13th and 12th centuries BCE as having settled in Egypt. [34] Other scholars rebut this, proposing that the Hebrews are mentioned in later texts of the 3rd Intermediate Period of Egypt (11th century BCE) as Shasu of Yhw, [35] while some scholars [36] consider these two hypotheses compatible, Ḫabiru being a generic Akkadian form parallel to Hebrew ʿivri from the Akkadian equivalent of ʿever "beyond, across" describing foreign peoples "from across the river", [37] where the letter ayin (ע) in Hebrew corresponds to ḫ in Akkadian [38] (as in Hebrew zeroaʿ corresponding to Akkadian zuruḫ [39] ). Alternatively, some argue that Habiru refers to a social class found in every ancient Near Eastern society, which Hebrews could be part of. [40]

Use as synonym for "Israelites"

In the Hebrew Bible, the term Hebrew is normally used by foreigners (namely, the Egyptians) when speaking about Israelites and sometimes used by Israelites when speaking of themselves to foreigners, [41] [ page needed ] although Saul does use the term for his fellow countrymen in 1 Samuel 13:3. In Genesis 11:16–26, Abraham (Abram) is described as a descendant of Eber; Josephus states "Eber" was the patriarch that Hebrew was named after proceeding from the Tower of Babel at the time of Eber's son Peleg, from which Hebrew would eventually become derived. [42] [43]

According to the Jewish Encyclopedia the terms Hebrews and Israelites usually describe the same people, stating that they were called Hebrews before the conquest of the Land of Canaan and Israelites afterwards. [44]

Professor Nadav Na'aman and others say that the conflation of Hebrew with Israelite is rare and is only used when Israelites are "in exceptional and precarious situations, such as migrants or slaves." [45] [46] Professor Albert D. Friedberg similarly argues that Hebrews refer to socioeconomically disadvantaged Israelites, especially in the context of the Book of Exodus and Books of Samuel. [40]

In Genesis 14:13, Abraham is described as Avram Ha-Ivri which translates literally as "Abram the Hebrew." Hebrew, in this context, might refer to Abraham's descent from Eber. It might also refer to Abraham's primary language or his status as a migrant from the "other side of the river". [40]

Theologian Alexander MacLaren believes that Hebrew was a nickname for all migrants who migrated to Canaan from the other side of the Euphrates River (or the Jordan River), from the perspective of the 'long-settled' aboriginal inhabitants of Canaan. [47]

Use as synonym for "Jews"

1940s poster: Sail on Hebrew ships! 1940'S POSTER ENCOURAGING SAILING ON HEBREW SHIPS. krzh mSHnvt h-40 hqvrAt lSHvt bAvnyvt `bryvt.D247-028.jpg
1940s poster:
Sail on Hebrew ships!

By the Roman period, "Hebrews" could be used to designate the Jews, who use the Hebrew language. [48] The Epistle to the Hebrews, one of the books of the New Testament, was probably directed at Jewish Christians.[ citation needed ]

A friend of mine in Warsaw told me about a Polish journalist who visited Israel for the first time. On his return he reported with great excitement:
“You know what I’ve discovered? In Israel, too, there are Jews!”
For this Pole, Jews are people who wear a long black kaftan and a big black hat. [...]
This distinction between Israelis and Jews would not have surprised any of us 50 years ago. Before the foundation of the State of Israel, none of us spoke about a “Jewish state”. In our demonstrations we chanted: “Free Immigration! Hebrew State!”
In almost all [lower-alpha 1] media quotations from those days, there appear the two words “Hebrew state”, almost never “Jewish state”.

Uri Avnery, born in 1923. [49]

In some modern languages, including Armenian, Greek, Italian, Romanian, and many Slavic languages, the name Hebrews (with linguistic variations) is the standard ethnonym for Jews; but in many other languages in which both terms exist, it is currently considered derogatory to call Jews "Hebrews". [50] [51]

Among certain left-wing or liberal circles of Judaic cultural lineage, the word "Hebrew" is used as an alternatively secular description of the Jewish people (e.g., Bernard Avishai's The Hebrew Republic or left-wing wishes for a "Hebrew-Arab" joint cultural republican state). It is also used in some circles as a secular description of people of Judaic cultural lineage who practice other religions or none, including Hebrew Catholics.

Use in Zionism

Beginning in the late 19th century, the term "Hebrew" became popular among secular Zionists. In this context, the word alluded to the transformation of the Jews into a strong, independent, self-confident secular national group ("the New Jew") sought by classical Zionism. This use died out after the establishment of the state of Israel, when "Hebrew" was replaced with "Jew" or "Israeli". [52]

David Ben-Gurion, the first Prime Minister of Israel, believed that the Hebrews were the indigenous inhabitants of Canaan that joined Abraham's religion, after he settled in the region. He also believed that not all Hebrews joined Jacob's family when they migrated to Egypt and later, birthed the generation of Hebrews that endured the Exodus. [53]

Notes

  1. ↑ Hebrew-language

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canaan</span> Region in the ancient Near East

Canaan was a Semitic-speaking civilization and region of the Southern Levant in the Ancient Near East during the late 2nd millennium BC. Canaan had significant geopolitical importance in the Late Bronze Age Amarna Period as the area where the spheres of interest of the Egyptian, Hittite, Mitanni, and Assyrian Empires converged or overlapped. Much of present-day knowledge about Canaan stems from archaeological excavation in this area at sites such as Tel Hazor, Tel Megiddo, En Esur, and Gezer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Israelites</span> Iron Age Hebrew tribal people in Canaan

The Israelites were a Hebrew-speaking ethnoreligious group consisting of tribes that inhabited much of Canaan during the Iron Age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amalek</span> Nation and a character described in the Hebrew Bible

Amalek is described in the Hebrew Bible as the enemy nation of the Israelites. The name "Amalek" can refer to the descendants of Amalek, the grandson of Esau, or anyone who lived in their territories in Canaan, or North African descendants of Ham, the son of Noah.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tribe of Ephraim</span> One of the two Half-Tribes of Joseph

According to the Hebrew Bible, the Tribe of Ephraim was one of the tribes of Israel. The Tribe of Manasseh together with Ephraim formed the House of Joseph. It is one of the ten lost tribes. The etymology of the name is disputed.

<i>Elohim</i> Word for deity or deities in the Hebrew Bible

Elohim, the plural of אֱלוֹהַּ, is a Hebrew word meaning "gods" or "godhood". Although the word is grammatically plural, in the Hebrew Bible it most often takes singular verbal or pronominal agreement and refers to a single deity, particularly the God of Israel. In other verses it refers to the singular gods of other nations or to deities in the plural.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eber</span> Great-grandson of Shem the son of Noah

Eber is an ancestor of the Ishmaelites and the Israelites according to the Generations of Noah in the Book of Genesis and the Books of Chronicles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ʿApiru</span> Bronze Age people of the Fertile Crescent

ʿApiru, also known in the Akkadian version Ḫabiru is a term used in 2nd-millennium BCE texts throughout the Fertile Crescent for a social status of people who were variously described as rebels, outlaws, raiders, mercenaries, bowmen, servants, slaves, and laborers.

The Canaanite languages, sometimes referred to as Canaanite dialects, are one of four subgroups of the Northwest Semitic languages, the others being Aramaic, Ugaritic and Amorite. These closely related languages originate in the Levant and Mesopotamia, and were spoken by the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples of an area encompassing what is today, Israel, Jordan, the Sinai Peninsula, Lebanon, Syria, as well as some areas of southwestern Turkey (Anatolia), western and southern Iraq (Mesopotamia) and the northwestern corner of Saudi Arabia. From the 9th century BC they also spread to the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa and Mediterranean in the form of Phoenician.

Over recorded history, there have been many names of the Levant, a large area in the Near East, or its constituent parts. These names have applied to a part or the whole of the Levant. On occasion, two or more of these names have been used at the same time by different cultures or sects. As a natural result, some of the names of the Levant are highly politically charged. Perhaps the least politicized name is Levant itself, which simply means "where the sun rises" or "where the land rises out of the sea", a meaning attributed to the region's easterly location on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shasu</span> Bronze–Iron Age nomads in the Southern Levant

The Shasu were Semitic-speaking pastoral nomads in the Southern Levant from the late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age or the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt. They were tent dwellers, organized in clans ruled by a tribal chieftain and were described as brigands active from the Jezreel Valley to Ashkelon, in the Transjordan and in the Sinai. Some of them also worked as mercenaries for Asiatic and Egyptian armies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rephaite</span> Group mentioned in the Hebrew Bible

In the Hebrew Bible, as well as non-Jewish ancient texts from the region, the Northwest Semitic term Rephaite or Repha'im refers either to a people of greater-than-average height and stature in Deuteronomy 2:10-11, or departed spirits in the afterlife, Sheol as written in the following scriptures: Isaiah 26:14; Psalms 88:10, and Proverbs 9:18, as well as Isaiah 14:9.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eber-Nari</span> Satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire

Eber-Nari (Akkadian), also called Abar-Nahara (Aramaic) or Aber Nahra (Syriac), was a region of the ancient Near East. Translated as "Beyond the River" or "Across the River" in both the Akkadian and Aramaic languages, it referred to the land on the opposite side of the Euphrates from the perspective of Mesopotamia and Persia. In this context, the region is further known to modern scholars as Transeuphratia. Functioning as a satrapy, it was originally administered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire before being absorbed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire and then by the Achaemenid Empire. During the Greek conquest of Persia, Eber-Nari was, like the rest of the Achaemenid Empire, annexed by the Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great. It was later dissolved by the Seleucid Empire, which incorporated it into Syria, along with Assyria.

Aram is a son of Shem, according to the Table of Nations in Genesis 10 of the Hebrew Bible, and the father of Uz, Hul, Gether and Mash or Meshech. The Book of Chronicles lists Aram, Uz, Hul, Gether, and Meshech as descendants of Shem, although without stating explicitly that Aram is the father of the other four.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Hebrew alphabet</span>

The Hebrew alphabet is a script that was derived from the Aramaic alphabet during the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods. It replaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet which was used in the earliest epigraphic records of the Hebrew language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Selah (biblical figure)</span> Ancestor of Abraham according to Genesis in Hebrew Bible

Selah, Salah or Sala or Shelah is an ancestor of the Israelites and Ishmaelites according to the Table of Nations in Genesis 10. He is thus one of the table's "seventy names". He is also mentioned in Genesis 11:12–15, 1 Chronicles 1:18–24, and Luke 3:35–36.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transjordan in the Bible</span> Biblical discussion of an area of land in the Southern Levant lying east of the Jordan River valley

Transjordan is an area of land in the Southern Levant lying east of the Jordan River valley. It is also alternatively called Gilead.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Land of Israel</span> Name for an area of the Southern Levant

The Land of Israel is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definitions of the limits of this territory vary between passages in the Hebrew Bible, with specific mentions in Genesis 15, Exodus 23, Numbers 34 and Ezekiel 47. Nine times elsewhere in the Bible, the settled land is referred as "from Dan to Beersheba", and three times it is referred as "from the entrance of Hamath unto the brook of Egypt".

Transjordan, the East Bank, or the Transjordanian Highlands, is the part of the Southern Levant east of the Jordan River, mostly contained in present-day Jordan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amorites</span> Ancient Semitic-speaking people from the Levant

The Amorites were an ancient Northwest Semitic-speaking Bronze Age people from the Levant. Initially appearing in Sumerian records c. 2500 BC, they expanded and ruled most of the Levant, Mesopotamia and parts of Egypt from the 21st century BC to the late 17th century BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biblical terminology for race</span> Terms for races in the Bible

Since early modern times, a number of biblical ethnonyms from the Table of Nations in Genesis 10 have been used as a basis for classifying human racial and national identities. The connection between Genesis 10 and contemporary ethnic groups began during classical antiquity, when authors such as Josephus, Hippolytus and Jerome analyzed the biblical list.

References

  1. ↑ "Index of /epsd". psd.museum.upenn.edu. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  2. ↑ "עִבְרִי - Hebrew - iv.ri - H5680 - Word search - ESV - STEP". www.stepbible.org. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  3. ↑ Brown; Driver; Briggs; Gesenius (1952). The NAS Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon. Oxford University Press. ISBN   0-198-64301-2 . Retrieved September 6, 2014.
  4. ↑ Douglas Knight, "Hebrews", The Oxford Companion to the Bible: "An ethnic term, it antedated the common sociopolitical names Israel or Judah in the monarchic period, as well as the more ethnoreligious appellative Jew in later times."
  5. ↑ Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, p.567, "Hebrew, Hebrews... A non-ethnic term"
  6. ↑ Collapse of the Bronze Age, p. 266, quote: "Opinion has sharply swung away from the view that the Apiru were the earliest Israelites in part because Apiru was not an ethnic term nor were Apiru an ethnic group."
  7. ↑ Steadman, Sharon R.; Ross, Jennifer C., eds. (April 1, 2016). Agency and Identity in the Ancient Near East: New Paths Forward. Approaches to anthropological archaeology. Routledge. p. 131. ISBN   9781134945443 . Retrieved November 14, 2023. Ethnicity [...] is a [...] subtle and difficult phenomenon to explain within an ancient context. [...] I think it is dangerous to equate modern concepts of ethnicity with the sorts of social markers used in ancient times to distinguish groups of people from one another.
  8. ↑ "Genesis 1:1 (NKJV)". Blue Letter Bible. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  9. ↑ Acts 6:1: "Now in those days, when the number of the disciples was multiplying, there arose a complaint against the Hebrews by the Hellenists, because their widows were neglected in the daily distribution." - among other texts).
  10. ↑ English "Jewish Museum of Venice" translates Italian Museo Ebraico di Venezia. - See for example: Administrator. "Jewish Museum of Venice - homepage". Museoebraico.it. Archived from the original on August 17, 2012. Retrieved August 4, 2012.
  11. ↑ "Jewish Ghetto of Venice". Ghetto.it. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved August 4, 2012.
  12. ↑ "Hebrew". Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago. 2009.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ↑ Gesenius, H. W. F. (ed.). "Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament".
  14. ↑ "Genesis 14:13". Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges.
  15. ↑ Ernest, Klein (ed.). "A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language for Readers of English".
  16. ↑ "Joshua 24:3 But I took your father Abraham from beyond the Euphrates and led him through all the land of Canaan, and I multiplied his descendants. I gave him Isaac". biblehub.com. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
  17. ↑ "Abram the Hebrew = Αβραμ τῷ περάτῃ".
  18. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "περατής". A Greek-English Lexicon. Retrieved September 3, 2022.
  19. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "περάω". A Greek-English Lexicon. Retrieved September 3, 2022.
  20. ↑ "Bereishit Rabah 42:8" (on the first mention of the word ivri in the Bible: the phrase "Abram the ivri" of Genesis 14:13).
  21. ↑ Wilhelm Gesenius. "Sketch of the History of the Hebrew Language". Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar.
  22. ↑ Beattie, D. R. G.; Davies, Philip R. (March 1, 2011). "What Does Hebrew Mean?1". Journal of Semitic Studies. 56 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1093/jss/fgq059. ISSN   0022-4480.
  23. ↑ A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian, Jeremy Black, Andrew George, Nicholas Postgate, page 64
  24. ↑ Example: definition of eber nari in Akkadian-language Treaty of Esarhaddon King of Assyria with Baal King of Tyre (British Museum, London, UK)
  25. ↑ Ezra 4:11, New American Standard Bible: "To King Artaxerxes: Your servants, the men in the region beyond the Euphrates River" (Aramaic: enash avar nahara).
  26. ↑ "Nehemiah 2:7 Hebrew Text Analysis". biblehub.com. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
  27. ↑ "Nehemiah 2:7 in the New International Version translation: "may I have letters to the governors of Trans-Euphrates"". biblehub.com. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
  28. ↑ "Shasu or Habiru: Who Were the Early Israelites?". The BAS Library. August 24, 2015. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  29. ↑ "Israelites as Canaanites". www.fsmitha.com. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  30. ↑ "Inside, Outside: Where Did the Early Israelites Come From?". The BAS Library. August 24, 2015. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  31. ↑ Who Were the Hebrews?
  32. ↑ "EBER - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  33. ↑ PD-icon.svg  Hirsch, Emil G.; König, Eduard (1903). "Eber". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia . Vol. 5. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 30.
  34. ↑ "Hebrew - people". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  35. ↑ Rainey, Anson (November 2008). "Shasu or Habiru. Who Were the Early Israelites?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 34 (6 (Nov/Dec)). Biblical Archaeology Society.
  36. ↑ "Klein Dictionary, עִבְרִי". www.sefaria.org. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
  37. ↑ See above the discussion of the Akkadian and Aramaic expressions eber nari and avar nahara respectively, corresponding to Hebrew ever nahar, being widely used in the ancient Near-East.
  38. ↑ Klein, Ernest (1971). A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary Of The English Language. p. 692.
  39. ↑ "Search Entry". www.assyrianlanguages.org. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
  40. 1 2 3 D. Friedberg, Albert (February 22, 2017). "Who Were the Hebrews?". The Torah.com. Archived from the original on November 28, 2023.
  41. ↑ William David. Reyburn, Euan McG. Fry. A Handbook on Genesis. New York: United Bible Societies. 1997.
  42. ↑ Flavius Josephus - Antiquities of The Jews, Book I, Chapter VI, Paragraph 4: Greek : Ἀρφαξάδου δὲ παῖς γίνεται Σάλης, τοῦ δὲ Ἕβερος, ἀφ᾽ οὗ τοὺς Ἰουδαίους Ἑβραίους ἀρχῆθεν ἐκάλουν: Ἕβερος δὲ Ἰούκταν καὶ Φάλεγον ἐγέννησεν: ἐκλήθη δὲ Φάλεγος, ἐπειδὴ κατὰ τὸν ἀποδασμὸν τῶν οἰκήσεων τίκτεται: φαλὲκ γὰρ τὸν μερισμὸν Ἑβραῖοι καλοῦσιν., lit.  'Sala was the son of Arphaxad; and his son was Heber, from whom they originally called the Jews Hebrews. Heber begat Joetan and Phaleg: he was called Phaleg, because he was born at the dispersion of the nations to their several countries; for Phaleg among the Hebrews signifies division.'
  43. ↑ ‘To Eber were born two sons: the name of the one was Peleg, for in his days the earth (erets) was divided’ (Genesis 10:25)
  44. ↑ "HEBREW". Jewishe Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  45. ↑ Carolyn Pressler (2009). "Wives and Daughters, Bond and Free: Views of Women in the Slave Laws of Exodus 21.2-11". In Bernard M. Levinson; Victor H. Matthews; Tikva Frymer-Kensky (eds.). Gender and Law in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East . Bloomsbury Academic. p.  152. ISBN   978-0567545008.
  46. ↑ Carvalho, Corrine L. (2010). Encountering Ancient Voices: A Guide to Reading the Old Testament. Anselm Academic. p. 68. ISBN   978-1599820507.
  47. ↑ "Genesis 14 MacLaren Expositions Of Holy Scripture". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 8, 2024.
  48. ↑ "Hebrews" . Retrieved March 3, 2019– via The Free Dictionary.
  49. ↑ Avnery, Uri (November 27, 2010). "The Original Sin". Gush Shalom . Retrieved January 26, 2023.
  50. ↑ Yitzhaq Feder, in an online-article (c. 2013), "Don't Call Me Hebrew! The Mysterious Origins of the First Anti-Semitic Slur" suggests the term's present-day derogatory quality goes back to the origins of writing about the Jewish people.
  51. ↑ E. G. Kraeling, "The Origin of the Name Hebrews", American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 58/3 (July 1941): 237-253.
  52. ↑ Shavit, Yaacov (1987). The New Hebrew Nation. Routledge. pp. xiv. ISBN   0-7146-3302-X.
  53. ↑ Wazana, Nili (April 15, 2018). "Israel's Declaration of Independence and the Biblical Right to the Land". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 7, 2024.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.