History of the Jews in Paraguay

Last updated

Paraguayan Jews
יהודים בפרגוואי‎
PRY orthographic.svg
Location of Paraguay in South America
Total population
1,000 [1]
Regions with significant populations
Asunción
Languages
Spanish, Hebrew, Yiddish
Religion
Judaism
Related ethnic groups
Argentine Jews, Brazilian Jews, Ashkenazi Jews
This illustrates the land that Paraguay lost during the Triple Alliance War against Uruguay and Brazil Map of the Paraguayan War 1864-1870.png
This illustrates the land that Paraguay lost during the Triple Alliance War against Uruguay and Brazil

The history of the Jews in Paraguay has been characterised by migration of Jewish people, mainly from European countries, to the South American nation, and has resulted in the Jewish Paraguayan community numbering 1,000 today. [2]

Contents

Migration began primarily from Europe in the late 19th century, where the first waves of Jewish immigrants to Paraguay came from countries such as France and Italy. [3] This was largely a result of liberal immigration policies after the 1870 Triple Alliance Conflict depleted Paraguay's population. [4]

During the 1920s, Jews from Poland and Ukraine arrived in Paraguay, and in the 1930s there was a wave of mass immigration of approximately 20,000 Jews from Germany. [5] Jewish immigration to Paraguay increased during World War II, as many sought temporary refuge in the nation before attempting to seek entry into neighbouring countries, such as Argentina and Brazil. [6] Following World War II, Israel and Paraguay opened diplomatic relations in 1949, however in 1970, the Israeli Embassy in Asunción was attacked. This event was largely attributable to the Arab-Israeli conflict, which had a profound impact on the Paraguayan Jewish community. [3]

The Jewish community, who mostly reside in the capital Asunción, has ultimately had a significant influence on the Paraguayan community, both culturally and politically. There have been various political disagreements between the Paraguayan Jewish community and Israel, which have affected Paraguayan-Israel relations. [7] In terms of cultural influence, the Jewish Paraguayan community has established various synagogues in Asunción. [8] Furthermore, various literature and films have been created to depict Jewish European immigration to Paraguayan, many of them made since 2005. [9]

Migration history overview

In the late 19th century, Jewish immigrants arrived in Paraguay from European countries such as Italy and France. During World War I, Jews from Palestine (Jerusalem), Egypt and Turkey arrived in Paraguay, mostly Sephardi Jews. [5] In the 1920s, there was a second wave of immigrants from Ukraine and Poland. Between 1933 and 1939, Jews from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia took advantage of Paraguay's liberal immigration laws to escape from Nazi-occupied Europe. [5] After World War II, most Jews that arrived in Paraguay were survivors of concentration camps. In the 1960s, approximately 40,000 Germans and their descendants, a majority of whom were Nazi supporters and some of whom were prominent Nazi figures, were temporarily living in Paraguay. [10] For instance, infamous Nazi doctor Josef Mengele also temporarily lived in the country. [10] Today, the majority of the Paraguayan Jewish community is of Ashkenazi background. [5]

First Jewish arrivals - late nineteenth century immigration

Paraguay has been a long-time supporter of Jewish people and their rights. In 1881, Paraguayan media published news about the persecution of Jewish people in Europe, raising awareness of widespread discrimination. [2]

Paraguay has also had a liberal immigration policy since the 1870s, as a result of the Paraguayan War, also known as the Triple Alliance Conflict. The war of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870) was waged by Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay against Paraguay. [4] The British government supported the allies in this war with economic and military resources. By the war's conclusion in 1870, Paraguay's political and economic framework was significantly weakened. Its strength as an independent nation was also severely impacted as it permanently lost territory around the Gran Chaco area. [4] Furthermore, the conflict resulted in two-thirds of Paraguay's citizens perishing. [11] As such, after peace was attained, in order to encourage immigration and recover from large population losses, the Paraguayan government created a clause in their 1870 Constitution that offered religious freedom in the territory. [12]

These factors, specifically the country's liberal immigration policy and 1870 constitution clause, culminated in an increase in Jews seeking refuge in Paraguay. As such, in the 1890s, Jewish people emigrated initially from France and Italy to seek temporary or permanent residency in Paraguay, seeing an opportunity to escape discrimination in Europe. [5] Paraguay has historically acted as a temporary destination for many Jewish migrants seeking to gain entry into other South American nations, such as Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. This was due to stricter immigration policies in these neighbouring countries during the 19th century, which caused some Jewish immigrants to permanently remain in Paraguay and as a result, they established a community in its capital, Asunción. [7] This was unlike other immigration patterns within South America, such as in Argentina and Brazil, where a majority of Jewish migrants worked in rural areas and in agricultural colonies, rather than in cities. [12]

World War immigration

World War I and Interwar Period

Paraguay continued with its liberal immigration policies during and after World War I. It is estimated between 15,000 and 20,000 Jewish people from Poland, Ukraine, Germany and Czechoslovakia temporarily sought refuge in Paraguay during World War I and throughout the early 1920s. [5]

The Jewish people who did immigrate to countries within South America, and in particular Paraguay, were of a lower socio-economic status. [8] Sephardi Jews chose to migrate to Latin America in higher numbers than Ashkenazi Jews, whose community preferred to immigrate to the United States and Canada. The Jews who migrated to Paraguay and other South American countries during the early 20th century were mainly Sephardic Jews from Europe and Palestine (Jerusalem) as well as Turkey. They chose to immigrate for reasons of discrimination within their own homelands, but also to escape military conscription. [8] Another contributing factor that encouraged migration to Paraguay were the lower barriers to entry compared to, for instance, North America and neighbouring South American countries. For instance, Paraguay did not require immigrants to have visas, and granted them free work permits. [8]

The rapid influx of Jewish refugees into Paraguay during the early 20th century was also related to quotas on immigration during the Great Depression, which were enforced by Dominion governments and forced Jewish immigrants to seek refuge elsewhere. For instance, Canada admitted only 25,000 Jewish immigrants between 1921 and 1931, compared to 120,000 between 1891 and 1921. [13] This caused many Jewish refugees to seek temporary and permanent refuge in South American countries, such as Paraguay.

During the interwar period, permanent Jewish immigration to Paraguay was lower compared to other South American countries, such as Argentina, which had 210,000 Jewish residents by 1931. [13] This is largely because Paraguay lacked infrastructure and political stability, and thus was not the first preference for many Jewish immigrants seeking permanent refuge. [14]

World War II

In 1933, the Nazi regime came to power in Germany. The regime held strong anti-Semitic, driven by an ideology that regarded Jewish people as 'enemies against the state'. There were exclusionary policies along with pogroms, such as Kristallnacht – a Nazi-organised riot in 1938, which had the aim of expelling Jews. The Nazis also used extermination camps, such as Auschwitz, between 1941 and 1942, to intern and torture Jews. [15] This prompted mass migration of Jews out of Europe, which meant that by 1942 there were 3,000 Jewish immigrants who had permanently settled in Paraguay, an increase from 1,200 in 1930. [6]

Many Jewish people sought both permanent and temporary refuge in Paraguay as countries such as Argentina and Brazil had tightened immigration restrictions. For instance, Argentina accepted 2,221 Jewish immigrants between 1939 and 1941. However, it is estimated that approximately 8,270 Jews entered the country illegally. [16] Many of these individuals had obtained Paraguayan visas and had then illegally crossed the border into Argentina. However, not all Jewish immigrants who sought asylum in Paraguay were granted citizenship or a visa. For example, Polish Jews fleeing to Brazil in 1940 a boat called the 'Cabo de Hornos' were refused entry due to tightened immigration restrictions. [16] They then sought refuge in Paraguay but were denied entry due to administrative errors. This group of would-be Jewish immigrants returned to Europe. [16]

A further deterrent for Jewish immigrants at this time was the influence of the Paraguayan Fernheim Colony, composed of 2,000 German Mennonites. The Fernheim Mennonites supported the Nazi regime, anti-Semitism and saw the Jewish Paraguayan community as a threat to their faith. [17] Josef Mengele, the Nazi physician, is thought to have originally sought refuge with this Mennonite community after he fled to Paraguay following World War II. Another Paraguayan Mennonite settlement, Menno Colony, founded in Paraguay in 1870, numbered 1,800 members and was less aligned with the Nazi regime's ideologies. [18]

During the World War II period, intellectuals and political personalities within the Paraguayan Jewish community published commentaries and created local newspapers supporting Zionism and raised awareness of the discrimination against Jewish people in Europe. [2] Furthermore, during 1942, Paraguay's government implemented greater constraints against German citizens and sympathisers within Paraguay. [19] This was due to a report released that year by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), that identified Paraguay and other Latin American nations as a hotspot for Nazi activities. [19] As such, Paraguay monitored German citizens living within their nation. They also prohibited the wearing of German uniforms or any forms of Nazi symbols. These actions were taken to adhere to the demands of the United States government, ultimately, in order to secure a loan. [19] However, these actions taken by the government also benefitted the Paraguayan Jewish community. As a result of this activism and support of a Jewish state, the first diplomatic representative of Israel arrived in Paraguay in 1950. [2]

Twentieth-Century political disputes

The Paraguayan Jewish community was impacted by the Arab–Israeli tensions during the 20th century. On 4 May 1970, a day after a ceremony was held by the Jewish Paraguayan community in Asunción to honour the victims of Nazis, a shooting occurred at the Israeli embassy in Asunción. [3] A Jewish Paraguayan employee of the embassy was killed, and another injured. The two Palestinian assailants fled, with media and the Israeli ambassador labelling the shooting 'an attack against Israel'. [3]

However, the Jewish Representative Council in Paraguay condemned the attempt to transfer 'struggling Arab and Israel relations' onto the Paraguayan Jewish community. [3] The Paraguayan Jewish Council did not wish to affiliate the 1967 Arab-Israeli conflict with Paraguayan Jews, stating it could affect their independence and ability to act as their own neutral Jewish state. [3]

Jewish influence in Paraguay

Political influence

In 2018, Paraguay became the second country in the world to move its Israeli embassy to Jerusalem. However, that year there was a change in presidency in Paraguay from Horacio Cartes to Mario Benitez, and the embassy was reinstated to Tel Aviv. [20] This led to Israel closing its embassy in Paraguay.

Cultural and demographic influence

In 1917, the first Synagogue was established in Asunción by the Jewish Paraguayan community. Currently there are three synagogues in Paraguay, all located in its capital of Asunción. The synagogues are for the Ashkenazi, Sephardi and Chabad communities. [8]

Statistics as of 2019 indicate that of the 6.9 million Paraguayans, there are approximately 1,000 Jewish citizens, known as the 'core Jewish population' – with both parents of Jewish heritage. [21] There are also approximately 300 Paraguayans with one parent who is Jewish. [21] A majority of the Jewish citizens in Paraguay are Ashkenazi and live in the capital of Asunción. [22] The number of Jewish Paraguayans has decreased since 1967, when there were 1,200 core Jewish Paraguayans. [23] This decline in the core Jewish population is largely a result of emigration by members of the Jewish Paraguayan community. From 1948 to 2016, a total of 34 people have made Aliyah to Israel. Additionally, a further nine individuals migrated back to Israel in 2017, followed by eight more in 2018. [21]

Paraguayan Jews have had a significant influence on the domestic and international film industry. The 2019 film Passports to Paraguay depicted the migration of Jews out of Europe during the 1940s who were seeking refuge in South American countries such as Paraguay. [24] Literature has also been written to depict the journey of European Jews to Paraguay. 'Barrio Palestina' by Susana Gertopan, 2005, narrates the story of a Polish Jewish family who emigrated to Paraguay during World War II. [12] The novel highlights how many Jewish people first attempted to seek refuge in Argentina, particularly Buenos Aires, but eventually found themselves in Paraguay due to Argentina's strict immigration restrictions.

The Paraguayan Jewish community has also influenced education within Paraguay. After migration to Paraguay, specifically during World War II, Jewish immigrants faced socio-economic difficulties. [23] However, greater educational opportunities during the late 1950s allowed for upward mobility. This transformed the Paraguayan Jewish community into a middle and upper-middle class demographic. [23] An example of increased educational opportunities after World War II was the Jewish Paraguayan School, Escuela Integral Estado de Israel, which opened in 1959. Since then, it has provided an education based on Jewish values and teachings and was restructured in 2009 to accept enrolments from all Paraguayan students. [22]  It is estimated that approximately 70 per cent of the Jewish children within Paraguay attend this school. [8]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demographics of Paraguay</span>

Demographic features of the population of Paraguay include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.

In the 20th century, approximately 900,000 Jews migrated, fled, or were expelled from Muslim-majority countries throughout Africa and Asia. Primarily a consequence of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the mass movement mainly transpired from 1948 to the early 1970s, with one final exodus of Iranian Jews occurring shortly after the Islamic Revolution in 1979–1980. An estimated 650,000 (72%) of these Jews resettled in Israel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aliyah</span> Immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel

Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to, historically, the geographical Land of Israel or the Palestine region, which is today chiefly represented by the State of Israel. Traditionally described as "the act of going up", moving to the Land of Israel or "making aliyah" is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism. The opposite action – emigration by Jews from the Land of Israel – is referred to in the Hebrew language as yerida. The Law of Return that was passed by the Israeli parliament in 1950 gives all diaspora Jews, as well as their children and grandchildren, the right to relocate to Israel and acquire Israeli citizenship on the basis of connecting to their Jewish identity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee</span> Jewish relief organization based in New York City

American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, also known as Joint or JDC, is a Jewish relief organization based in New York City. Since 1914 the organisation has supported Jewish people living in Israel and throughout the world. The organization is active in more than 70 countries.

The history of the Jews in Latin America began with conversos who joined the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the continents. The Alhambra Decree of 1492 led to the mass conversion of Spain's Jews to Catholicism and the expulsion of those who refused to do so. However, the vast majority of conversos never made it to the New World and remained in Spain slowly assimilating to the dominant Catholic culture. This was due to the requirement by Spain's Blood Statutes to provide written documentation of Old Christian lineage to travel to the New World. However, the first Jews came with the first expedition of Christopher Columbus, including Rodrigo de Triana and Luis De Torres.

Yerida is emigration by Jews from the State of Israel. Yerida is the opposite of aliyah, which is immigration by Jews to Israel. Zionists are generally critical of the act of yerida and the term is somewhat derogatory. The emigration of non-Jewish Israelis is not included in the term.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration to Argentina</span>

The history of immigration to Argentina can be divided into several major stages:

The German minority in Paraguay came into existence with immigration during the industrial age. The "Nueva Germania" colony was founded in Paraguay in 1888; though regarded as a failure, it still exists despite being abandoned by many of its founders in the 1890s. Paraguay was a popular place for German leaders accused of war crimes to retreat after the second World War. There are large communities of German descendants living in the department of Guairá, in a town called, the department of Itapúa, mainly in the Departmental Capital, Encarnación and the German towns of Obligado, Bella Vista and Hohenau. Some recent Brazilian immigrants to Paraguay also have German ancestry (Brasiguayos). Notable Paraguayans of German descent include the former president of Paraguay Alfredo Stroessner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HIAS</span> Jewish American nonprofit organization

HIAS is a Jewish American nonprofit organization that provides humanitarian aid and assistance to refugees. It was established on November 27, 1881, originally to help the large number of Russian Jewish immigrants to the United States who had left Europe to escape antisemitic persecution and violence. In 1975, the State Department asked HIAS to aid in resettling 3,600 Vietnam refugees. Since that time, the organization continues to provide support for refugees of all nationalities, religions, and ethnic origins. The organization works with people whose lives and freedom are believed to be at risk due to war, persecution, or violence. HIAS has offices in the United States and across Latin America, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Since its inception, HIAS has helped resettle more than 4.5 million people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Jews in Argentina</span> Ethnic group

The history of the Jews in Argentina goes back to the early sixteenth century, following the expulsion of Jews from Spain. Sephardic Jews fleeing persecution immigrated with explorers and colonists to settle in what is now Argentina, in spite of being forbidden from travelling to the American colonies. In addition, many of the Portuguese traders in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata were Jewish. An organized Jewish community, however, did not develop until after Argentina gained independence from Spain in 1816. By mid-century, Jews from France and other parts of Western Europe, fleeing the social and economic disruptions of revolutions, began to settle in Argentina. Argentines of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic heritage have left their mark on all aspects of Argentine culture, including in areas such as cuisine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Germany–Paraguay relations</span> Bilateral relations

Germany–Paraguay relations are the diplomatic relations between Germany and Paraguay. Both nations enjoy friendly relations, the importance of which centers on the history of German migration to Paraguay. Approximately 300,000 Paraguayans claim German origin. Both nations are members of the United Nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Paraguay</span>

Christianity is the predominant religion in Paraguay, with Catholicism being its largest denomination. Before the arrival of Spanish missionaries, the people residing in the territory of modern day Paraguay practiced a variety of religions.

The history of the Jews in Honduras begins in the colonial period, during the proceedings of the Inquisition with the arrival of sephardic Jews to Honduran soil. As of April 2020, in Honduras there are 390 self identified Jews who have gained the Honduran residence. Honduran Jews are able to practice Judaism peacefully and are included in Honduran politics and culture. The Jewish community is primarily concentrated in Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula, where there are synagogues. Honduras was one of the first countries to recognize the State of Israel, in 1948, and the Jewish community in Honduras has benefited greatly from Israeli aid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great European immigration wave to Argentina</span> Major immigration event took place in the late 19th and early 20th century

The Great European Immigration Wave to Argentina was a major source of economic growth and social change for Argentina. Beginning in the late 19th century, the wave consisted largely of Italian and Spanish immigrants. There were also many other nationalities and ethnic groups that came, including Syrian-Lebanese, Germans, Ukrainians, Poles, Jews and others. The rapid influx of European migrants led to immense population growth in Argentina, and the migrants were incredibly influential in the politics of the nation by introducing political concepts like labor unions and socialism into the country's political zeitgeist. The remnants of the Immigration Wave of migrants are still visible in Argentina today, not only as a result of their influence on the country's economic and political history, but as cultural cornerstones in both urban and rural communities alike. Shifting labor markets and decreased reliance on European economics after the outbreak of World War I had a huge effect on European Migration to Argentina. These factors all lead to the end of the Great European Immigration Wave and began an era of Latin American politics primarily focused on domestic growth rather than the outsourcing of international labor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Jews in Bolivia</span> Ethnic group

The history of the Jews in Bolivia goes back to the colonial period of Bolivia in the 16th century. In the 19th century, Jewish merchants came to Bolivia, most of them taking local women as wives and founding families that merged into the mainstream Catholic society. This was often the case in the eastern regions of Santa Cruz, Tarija, Beni and Pando, where these merchants came either from Brazil or Argentina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Migration of Moroccan Jews to Israel</span> 20th-century population movement event

The migration of Moroccan Jews to Israel has been made all over the centuries. Moroccan Jews in Israel have been the founders of many pioneer neighborhoods in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Haifa, Tiberias and others.

Argentine Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants of the Argentine Jewish community who now reside within the state of Israel. Argentine Jewish immigration to Israel has been, and still is, the largest and most significant migratory flow from South America. This is because Argentina has one of the largest Jewish communities in the world, the third largest in the Americas after those in the United States and Canada, and seventh worldwide. Because of this, many Jewish Argentines are able to make aliyah and become Israeli citizens through the Law of Return. The Argentine community in Israel is about 50,000 people, although some estimates put the figure at 70,000, making it one of the fastest-growing groups in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration to Paraguay</span>

Historically, the migratory history of Paraguay has been ambiguous, since it has had periods of large scale emigration as well as large waves of immigrants, primarily from Europe.

Antisemitism is the practice of showing hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group. In Argentina antisemitism has been around since Spanish colonization in the sixteenth century, and has continued to the present day. In the twentieth century antisemitism in Argentina was particularly pervasive, especially in the World War II and post-World War II eras. In these eras Argentine antisemitism adopted Nazi antisemitism, and blended it with religious (Catholic) hostility, which allowed vehement antisemitism in Argentina to persist well into the 1970s and 1980s.

Anabaptists and Jews have had interactions for several centuries, since the origins of Anabaptism in the Radical Reformation in early modern Europe. Due to the insularity of many Anabaptist and Jewish communities, Anabaptist–Jewish relations have historically been limited but there are notable examples of interactions between Anabaptists and Jews. Due to some similarities in dress, culture, and language, Amish and Mennonite communities in particular have often been compared and contrasted to Haredi and Hasidic Jewish communities.

References

  1. ↑ Congreso Judío Latinoamericano. "Comunidades judías: Paraguay" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Amir, Shimeon (1 January 1989). "The position of Paraguay in the political struggle for the establishment of the Jewish State, 1945-1949". World Congress of Jewish Studies. 2: 559–566.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Karam, John Tofik (1 July 2011). "Anti-Semitism from the Standpoint of its Arab Victims in a South American Border Zone". Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies. 6 (2): 141–167. doi:10.1080/17442222.2011.579726. ISSN   1744-2222. S2CID   144818713.
  4. 1 2 3 Fornos Peñalba, José Alfredo (1 April 1982). "Draft Dodgers, War Resisters and Turbulent Gauchos: The War of the Triple Alliance Against Paraguay". The Americas. 38 (4): 463–479. doi:10.2307/981208. ISSN   0003-1615. JSTOR   981208. S2CID   251415406.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Shields, Jaqueline. "Paraguay Virtual Jewish History Tour". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  6. 1 2 Linfield, Harry Sebee (1 January 1945). "Statistics of Jews". American Jewish Year Book. 47: 633–658.
  7. 1 2 Green, David. "Netanyahu Praised Paraguay for Welcoming Jews, Except, They Also Welcomed Nazis and Hezbollah". Haaretz. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Toktas, Sule; Kilinç, Fatih Resul (June 2018). "Jewish Immigration to the American Continent" (PDF). The Journal of Migration Studies. 4: 30–64.
  9. ↑ Hung, Wei (14 November 2022). "Passports to Paraguay". Diplomat Magazine. p. 1. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  10. 1 2 "The Jews of Paraguay". The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.
  11. ↑ Costa, William (27 February 2020). "Paraguay still haunted by cataclysmic war that nearly wiped it off the map". the Guardian. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  12. 1 2 3 Cordeiro Rosa, Debora (2012). Trauma, memory and identity in five Jewish novels from the Southern Cone. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN   978-0-7391-7298-8. OCLC   822017485.
  13. 1 2 Rosenswaike, Ira (1 October 1960). "The Jewish Population of Argentina: Census and Estimate, 1887-1947". Jewish Social Studies. 22 (4): 195–214.
  14. ↑ Milgram, Avraham (10 December 2020). "Crypto-Jews, Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Refugees from Nazi Europe in Early Twentieth-Century Portugal: Together and Apart". Contemporary Jewry. 40 (4): 607–626. doi:10.1007/s12397-020-09353-z. ISSN   0147-1694. S2CID   233560938.
  15. ↑ Wolfgram (2021). "From the Visual to the Textual: How Nazi Control of the Visual Record of Kristallnacht Shaped the Postwar Narrative". History and Memory. 33 (2): 107. doi:10.2979/histmemo.33.2.05. S2CID   239132194.
  16. 1 2 3 Kałczewiak, Mariusz (2019). "We Hope to Find a Way Out from Our Unpleasant Situation: Polish-Jewish Refugees and the Escape from Nazi Europe to Latin America". American Jewish History. 103 (1): 25–49. doi: 10.1353/ajh.2019.0002 . ISSN   1086-3141. S2CID   166046070.
  17. ↑ Bottos, Lorenzo Cañás (1 January 2006). "Old Colony Mennonites in South America: Refractions of the 'Other'". Cambridge Anthropology. 26 (1): 1–23.
  18. ↑ Eicher, John (1 October 2018). "Rustic Reich: The Local Meanings of (Trans)National Socialism among Paraguay's Mennonite Colonies". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 60 (4): 998–1028. doi:10.1017/S0010417518000361. ISSN   0010-4175. S2CID   150036070.
  19. 1 2 3 Stahl, Daniel (1 April 2018). "Paraguay's Mennonites and the Struggle Against Fascism: A Global Historical Approach to the Nazi Era". The Mennonite Quarterly Review. 92 (2): 273.
  20. ↑ Holmes, Oliver (6 June 2018). "Outcry from Israel after Paraguay moves its Jerusalem embassy back to Tel Aviv". The Guardian.
  21. 1 2 3 DellaPergola, Sergio (2020), Dashefsky, Arnold; Sheskin, Ira M. (eds.), "World Jewish Population, 2019", American Jewish Year Book 2019, American Jewish Year Book, vol. 119, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 263–353, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-40371-3_8, ISBN   978-3-030-40370-6, S2CID   226747697 , retrieved 19 May 2022
  22. 1 2 Lerman, Antony (1989). The Jewish communities of the world : a contemporary guide. Antony Lerman, Institute of Jewish Studies (4th ed.). Basingstoke: Macmillan in association with the Institute of Jewish Affairs. ISBN   978-1-349-10532-8. OCLC   679345620.
  23. 1 2 3 Roniger, Luis (1 July 2010). "Latin American Jews and Processes of Transnational Legitimization and De-Legitimization". Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 9 (2): 185–207. doi:10.1080/14725886.2010.486532. ISSN   1472-5886. S2CID   144404139.
  24. ↑ ""Passports to Paraguay" in Jerusalem". Institute of National Remembrance. 14 December 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.